Thomas Aquinas

After showing that the holy ones God advances can suffer no loss, as though from the evil of punishment [n. 710], the Apostle now shows that they can suffer no loss as though from the evil of guilt. First, he presents his proposition; secondly, he excludes an opposite view [v. 34; n. 718]. In regard to the first it should be noted that a person suffers injury for guilt from two sources: first, from an accusation; secondly, from the judge who condemns [n. 717]. First, therefore, he shows that no accusation can harm God’s holy ones, and this by reason of divine election. For whoever chooses a person seems by that very fact to approve him. But the saints are chosen by God: "He chose us in him before the foundation of the world that we should be holy" (Eph 1:4). On the other hand, whoever accuses, disapproves of the one accused. Therefore he says: Who shall bring any charge, i.e., successfully, against the elect, i.e., against those God has chosen to be saints; hence it says in Rev (12:10): "For the accuser of our brethren has been thrown down." 717. Secondly, he shows that no accusation can be harmful to the saints. He shows this by referring to another of God’s benefits, namely, that God justifies us. This benefit is mentioned when he says: It is God who justifies us, in keeping with what he had said above (v.30): "Those whom he called he also justified"; "You were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" (1 Cor 6:11) But condemnation finds a place against the unjust: Who, then, is to condemn those justified by God: "When he is quiet, who can condemn" (Jb 34:29). 351 718. Then (v. 34b) he excludes an opposite view. For someone could fear that a person might be accused by Jesus Christ as a violator of Christ’s commandment in the same way as the Lord says of Moses: "It is Moses who accuses you, on whom you set your hope" (Jn 5:45); and also that he might be condemned by him, for "He is the one ordained by God to judge the living and the dead" (Ac 10:42). Furthermore, he is immune to sin: "Who did no sin" (1 Pt 2:22); consequently, he seems qualified to accuse and condemn, as it says in Jn (8:7): "Let him who is without sin among you be the first to throw a stone at her." And so he says, Christ Jesus. As if to say: Will Christ Jesus make accusations against God’s elect or even condemn them? And he says, not so; because even according to his human nature he confers great benefits on the saints, just as he also does according to his divinity. 719. Then he mentions four benefits from his humanity. First, from his death, when he says: he died, namely, for our salvation: "For Christ also died for sins once for all" (1 Pt 3:18). Secondly, from his resurrection, through which he vivifies us both with spiritual life now and with bodily life later. Hence he adds: yes, who rose from the dead. He says, yes, because it is preferable to commemorate him now for the power of his resurrection and for the weakness of his passion: "He was crucified in weakness, but lives by the power of God" (2 Cor 13:4). Thirdly, from his sitting with the Father when he says: who is at the right hand of God, i.e., equal to God the Father according to the divine nature and recipient of his choicest blessings according to his human nature. And this is also for our glory because, 352 as it says in Eph (2:6): "He made us sit with him in the heavenly places in Christ Jesus." For inasmuch as we are his members, in him we sit with God the Father: "He who conquers, I will grant him to sit with me on my throne, as I myself conquered and sat down with my Father on his throne" (Rev 3:21). Fourthly, from his intercession when he says: who indeed intercedes for us as our advocate: "We have an advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ" (1 Jn 2:1). But an advocate’s duty is not to accuse or condemn, but to repel an accuser and prevent condemnation. 720. Christ is said to intercede for us in two ways. In one way by praying for us, as it says in Jn (17:20): "I do not pray for these only, but also for those who believe in me through their word." But now his intercession for us is his will that we be saved: "Father, I desire that they also may be with me where I am" (Jn 17:24). In another way he intercedes by presenting to his Father’s gaze the human nature assumed for us and the mysteries celebrated in it: "He entered into heaven itself to appear in the presence of God on our behalf" (Heb 9:24). 721. Then he draws the conclusion [n. 695]. But because this conclusion does not seem credible to the inexperienced, he presents it in the form of a question. Hence he does three things: first, he presents the question; secondly, he shows the need for this question [v. 36; n. 724]; thirdly, he presents the solution [n. 725]. 722. This question can be derived in two ways from the foregoing. 353 One way is this: So many and such powerful benefits have been conferred on us by God that no one can count them. Furthermore, they all tend toward one thing, namely, "that we be rooted and grounded in love" (Eph 3:17). Who, then, shall separate us from the love of Christ? i.e., the love by which we love Christ and neighbor as he commanded: "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another" (Jn 13:34). Another way is this: God bestows great benefits on his holy ones, and when we consider them, such love of Christ burns in our hearts that nothing can quench it: "Many waters cannot quench love" (S of S 8:7). 723. He mentions the evils which might induce one to abandon love of Christ. And first, those that refer to life; secondly, the one which refers to death. In regard to those which threaten us in the course of our lives, he mentions present evils and evils to come. In regard to present evils he mentions evils to be endured; secondly, the loss of good things. Evils to be endured can be considered in two ways. In one way as they are present in the sufferer who is afflicted by them in two ways: first, externally in the body. Hence he says: tribulation. This word is related to "tribulus," a prickly herb: "Thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you" (Gen 3:18). But the just are not overcome by them: "Many are the tribulations of the just, and the Lord frees them from all of these" (Ps 34:19). A person is also afflicted by them internally in the form of mental anxiety, when he does not know where to go or which way to turn. In regard to this he says: or distress: "I am hemmed in on every side, and I do not know what to choose" (Dan 13:21). 354 26 Augustine, Ennarationes in Ps. 34, sermon 2, n. 13. Again such evils can be considered as they are present in the one inflicting them. In this respect he says: or persecution, For although persecution in the strict sense would imply pursuit of someone to make him flee: "If they persecute you in one city, flee to another" (Mt 10:23), yet in a general sense it can mean the infliction of any injury. Then he mentions the evils which consist in the removal of good things necessary for life, namely, food and clothing: "If we have food and clothing, with these we shall be content" (1 Tim 6:8). In regard to the removal of food he says: or famine; of clothing: or nakedness: "To the present hour we hunger and thirst, we are ill-clad" (1 Cor 4:11). In regard to future evils he adds: or peril, threatening at any moment: "In danger from rivers, danger from robbers…" (2 Cor 11:26). In regard to death he says: or sword: "They were killed with the sword" (Heb 11:37). 724. Then (v. 36) he shows the importance of this question, inasmuch as he says that all these things lie at hand to be suffered by the saints for the love of Christ. And he quotes the words of the Psalmist as though spoken by the martyrs. These words mention, first of all, the cause of the suffering: "For it is not the suffering but the cause that makes the martyr," as Augustine says.26 Hence he says: for thy sake: "He who loses his life for my sake shall find it" (Mt 10:39); "Let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief; yet if one suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed" (1 Pt 4:15). One suffers for Christ by suffering not only for the faith of Christ but for any righteous deed done for the love of Christ: "Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake" (Mt 5:10). 355 Secondly, he mentions the severity of the suffering when he says: we are being killed, i.e., handed over to death: "For we are sold, I and my people, to be destroyed" (Est 7:4). Thirdly, the duration of the persecution when he says: all the day long, i.e., during the whole period of life; "While we live we are always being given up to death for Jesus’ sake"(2 Cor 4:11). Fourthly, the persecutor’s readiness to kill when he says: we are regarded as sheep to be slaughtered, i.e., marked to be killed in the meat market. So, too, the saints are intentionally killed: "The hour is coming when whoever kills you will think he is offering service to God" (Jn 16:2); "Feed the flock doomed to slaughter" (Zech 11:4). 725. Then (v. 37) he answers the question. First he gives the answer saying: No, in all these things, namely, the evils mentioned above, we overcome, as long as we preserve our love unsullied: "In his arduous contest she gave him the victory" (Wis 10:12). But we do not succeed by our own strength but through Christ’s help; hence he adds: through him who loved us, i.e., on account of his help or on account of the affection we have for him; "not as though we first loved him, but because he first loved us" (1 Jn 4:19); "Thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ" (1 Cor 15:57). 726. Secondly, he clarifies the solution, showing that the saints’ love is insuperable. First he shows that it cannot be separated by creatures that exist; secondly, nor by creatures that do not exist but could [v. 39b; n. 733]. 356 727. In regard to the first he does two things. First he mentions things that exist in man, saying: I am sure that neither death, which is the first among things we fear, nor life, which is first among things we desire, can separate us from the love of God: "If we live, we live to the Lord, and if we die, we die to the Lord" (Rom 14:8). In these two are included all the ones previously mentioned. For six evils previously mentioned refer to life; but one, namely, the sword, refers to death. 728. Then he mentions things outside of man. Among these are, first, spiritual creatures; hence he says: nor angels, i.e., the lower ones assigned to guard individual men: "He will give his angels charge of thee" (Ps 91:11). Nor principalities, i.e., those assigned to guard nations: "Now I will return to fight against the prince of Persia; and when I am through with him, the prince of Greece will come. And there is none who contends by my side against these except Michael" (Dan 10:20). He adds: nor powers, which is the highest order of ministering angels: "The powers of heaven will be shaken" (Lk 21:26). This can be understood in two ways: in one way of wicked angels, who struggle against the saints: "Our wrestling is not against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers" (Eph 4:12). In another way it can refer to the good. Here Chrysostom in his book On Compunction of Heart says that the Apostle said this, not that the angels would at some time try to separate him from Christ; rather, these impossible things would be more possible, so to speak, than for him to be separated from the love of Christ. He speaks this way to show how great in him is the strength of divine love, and to lay everything out in the open. For this is the way of lovers, that they cannot hide their love 357 in silence but assert and bare it to their friends and to the beloved, and they cannot confine the flames within their heart. They speak of them frequently, so that by constantly recounting their love they may gain some relief, some cooling of the tremendous burning within them. In just this way blessed [Paul] here acts as an outstanding lover of Christ: he gathers up in one sentence all things that are and that were, everything that can be and even those that cannot. It is similar to what is said in Galatians chapter 1(:8), "But even if we, or an angel from heaven, preach to you another gospel than that which we have preached to you, let him be accursed." 729. Then he mentions visible creatures, and he sets out two distinctions. First according to time, by which they are distinguished according to present and future. Hence he says: nor things present, whether they cause pain or pleasure: "We look not to the things that are seen" (2 Cor 4:18). Then he adds: nor things to come. Whether we fear them or desire them, they cannot separate us from the love of Christ. Hence it says in Ac (21:13): "For I am ready not only to be imprisoned but even to die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus." 730. Then he distinguishes visible creatures on the basis of magnitude: first he touches on magnitude of strength when he says: nor power, i.e., no strong creature, such as a raging fire or sea, can separate me from the love of Christ, because "love is as strong as death" (S of S 8:6). 731. Secondly, he mentions magnitude of dimension, describing them by what properly belongs to bodies, namely height and depth. Hence he says: nor height, from which someone might threaten to cast me headlong, as in Lk (4:29): "They led Jesus to the brow of the hill, that they might throw 358 him down headlong"; nor depth, in which someone might submerge me: "I sink in deep mire" (Ps 69:2). These three things can also be referred to the ways a person could turn a man away from God: in one way by the force of power: but as it says in 1 Sam (2:2): "No one is strong as our God." Secondly, by the lofty height of one’s authority; but "God is the highest of the kings of the earth" (Ps. 89:27). Thirdly, by the depth of one’s wisdom; but God’s knowledge is deeper: "Deeper than Sheol -- what can you know?" (Jb 11:8). 732. These two, height and depth, can be referred to adversity and prosperity, according to 2 Cor (6:7): "With the weapons of righteousness for the right and for the left." 733. With regard to creatures which do not exist but could, he says: nor anything else in all creation. According to Chrysostom, he says this about the things that are not, as though all things that are do not suffice, but he must so to speak challenge to battle even the things that are not. None of them, he says, will be able to separate us from the love of God: "Love never falls away" (1 Cor 13:8). This love of God is in Christ Jesus our Lord, because it was given to us through him, inasmuch as he gave it to us through the Holy Spirit: "I have come to cast fire on the earth and what will I but that it be kindled" (Lk 12:49). 734. But since it says in Ec (9:1): "A man does not know whether he is worthy of love or hatred, but all things are kept uncertain," why does the Apostle say that he is certain that nothing can separate him from the love of God? One can answer that the Apostle is not speaking of himself personally but is spokesman for all the predestined, about whom he declares that nothing can separate 359 them from the love of God because of the certainty of predestination. This certainty can be caused by the power of charity which, considering its nature, cannot be separated from certain persons, since it loves God above all things. Hence if a person falls away from love, it is not on account of a shortcoming in this virtue but on account of a defect in one’s free choice. But if Paul is speaking for himself, he could be certain of it only by a revelation, because it was said to him: "My grace is sufficient for you" (2 Cor 12:9). For as to the outcome of free choice he says elsewhere: "Lest while speaking to others, I myself become a castaway" (1 Cor 9:27).

Having shown the need [n. 97] and power [n. 381] of grace, the Apostle begins to discuss the origin of grace and ask whether it is conferred solely by God’s choice or from the merits of previous works. He raises this question because the Jews, seemingly called to God’s special protection, had fallen from grace; whereas the Gentiles, previously alienated from God, had been admitted to it. First, therefore, he discusses the election of the Gentiles; secondly, the fall of the Jews, in chapter 10 [n. 813]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he recounts the greatness of the Jews; secondly, he shows how the Gentiles have been drawn into that greatness [v. 6; n. 748]. 361 In regard to the first, he does two things: first the Apostle shows his affection for the Jewish people, lest anything he had said or was about to say against them should seem to proceed from hatred; second, he shows their dignity [v. 4; n. 742]. Concerning the first he does two things. First he confirms what he was about to say; second, he demonstrates his affection [v. 2; n. 737]. 736. Concerning the first he does two things. First, he confirms what he is about to say with a simple assertion: I am speaking the truth, which especially befits the preacher who is a witness to the truth: "My mouth will utter truth" (Pr 8:7); "Love truth and peace" (Zech 8:19). And because a person sometimes mixes falsehood with the truth, he excludes this when he adds: I am not lying: "Putting away falsehood, let everyone speak the truth to this neighbor" (Eph 4:25). Secondly, he confirms what he is about to say with an oath, which is a confirmation supported by the testimony of infallible truth. Such are the witnesses of the saints: first, God Himself, as it say in Job 16:19: "My witness is in heaven." Hence Paul says, in Christ, i.e., through Jesus Christ Who is the truth without falsehood: "The Son of God whom we preached among you was not Yes and No" (2 Cor 1:19). Secondly, the infallible witness of the saints is their conscience; hence he adds: my conscience bears me witness: "Our boast is this, the testimony of our conscience" (2 Cor 1:12). But because one’s conscience is sometimes erroneous unless it is corrected by the Holy Spirit he adds: in the Holy Spirit: "The Spirit himself bears witness to our spirit" (Rom 8:16). 362 737. Then (v. 2) he shows his affection for the Jews by the pain he suffered from their fall. First, he describes this pain; secondly, he mentions a sign of it [v. 3; n. 739]. 738. He emphasizes how much pain he has suffered in three ways. First by its magnitude: I have great sorrow, because it concerns a great evil, namely, the exclusion of such a great people: "Vast as the sea is your ruin" (Lam 2:13). But this seems to conflict with Sir (30:22) where it says: "Give not up your soul to sadness," which seems to agree with the opinion of the Stoics, who admitted no sadness at all in the soul of a wise man. For since sadness is a reaction to a present evil, it cannot exist in a wise man to whom no evil is present. For they supposed that virtue was the only good and sin the only evil. But this opinion is refuted in two ways. First, because bodily defect, although they are not such evils as make men evil, are nevertheless among the evils which nature abhors. Hence, even the Lord is described as saddened by them: "My soul is sorrowful, even to death" (Mt 26:38). Secondly, since charity requires that a person love his neighbor as himself, it is laudable for a wise man to grieve over a son of his neighbor as over his own. Hence the Apostle says: "I fear that I May have to mourn over many of those who sinned" (2 Cor 12:2). Thus, worldly sadness, which springs from love of the world, works death and is rejected, but sadness which is godly and springs form divine love works salvation, as it says in 2 Cor 7:10. Such was Paul’s sadness. 363 Secondly, he emphasizes his grief by its duration, when he says: and unceasing anguish; not that he never ceased to grieve actually, but habitually: "That I might weep day and night for the slain of my people" (Jer 9:1). Thirdly, he emphasizes how real it was when he says: in my heart; for it was not superficial but rooted in the heart: "My eyes are spent in weeping…. My heart is poured out in grief" (Lam 2:11). 739. Then (v. 3) he presents the sign of his sadness, saying: For I, who am so fervent in the love of Christ, as was shown above, could wish that I myself were accursed [anathema]. Here it should be noted that "anathema" is a Greek word formed by combining "ana" which means "above" and "thesis" which means "placing," so that something placed above is said to be anathema. For when they found among the spoils of war something they did not wish men to use, they hung it in the temple. Form this, the custom arose that things but off from the common use of men were said to be "anathema"; hence, it says in Jos 6:17: "Let this city be an anathema, and all things that are in it, to the Lord." 740. He says, therefore: I could wish that I myself were anathema from Christ, i.e., separated from Him. One is separated from Christ in two ways: in one way by a sin, through which one is separated form the love of Christ for not obeying His commandment: "If you love me, keep my commandments" (Jn 14:15) But the Apostle could not wish to be separated from Christ in this way for any reason, as he explained in c. 8. For this is against the order of charity, by which a person is bound to love God above all things and his own salvation more than that of others. So he does not say "I wish" but "I could wish" during his days 364 of unbelief. But according to this explanation the Apostle is not saying anything great, because in those days he was willing to be separated from Christ even for himself. Hence, a Gloss explains that he says, I have great sorrow, referring to the sorrow with which he grieved over his past state of sin, during which he willed to be separated from Christ. In another way one can be separated from Christ, i.e., from the fruition of Christ possessed in glory. This is the way the Apostle wished to be separated from Christ, for the salvation of the Gentiles, not to mention the conversion of the Jews. For he says in Phil (1:23): "My desire is to depart and be with Christ, for that is far better. But to remains in the flesh is more necessary on your account." This he now says: I could wish, namely, if it were possible, to be anathema, i.e., separated from glory either absolutely or temporarily from Christ’s honor, which would be enhanced by the conversion of the Jews, as it ways in Pr 14:28: "In the multitude of the people is the dignity of the king." Hence, Chrysostom says: "Love so ruled his mind that to please Christ he would not only sacrifice being with Christ, which he deemed more desirable than anything else, but also the kingdom of heaven, which would be the reward of his labor for Christ." 741. The cause of this attitude is shown when he says: for the sake of my brethren. Hence Sir (25:1) says: "Three things are approved before God and men: the concord of brethren, the love of neighbors, and a wife and husband who live in harmony." Then to show that he was not referring to those who were his spiritual brethren in Christ, he adds: who are my kinsmen by race: "Are they descendents of Abraham? So am I" (I Cor 11:22). 365 742. Then (v. 4) he shows the greatness of the Jews in order that his sadness appear reasonable on account of the ancient dignity of a deteriorating people (for it is a weightier evil to lose greatness than never to have possessed it) and not as though it arose solely from worldly love. 743. But he shows their greatness in three ways. First, from their face when he says: They are Israelites, i.e., descending from the stock of Jacob who was called Israel (Gen 32:28). This pertains to their greatness, for it says in Dt (4:7): "Neither is there any nation so great as to have their gods coming to them…" 744. Secondly, he shows the greatness of that race from God’s blessings: first, the spiritual blessings, one of which refers to the present: to them belongs the sonship: hence it says in Ex (4:22): "Israel is my son, my firstborn." This refers to the spiritual men who arose among that people: but as to worldly men he stated above (8:15) that they received the spirit of slavery in fear. Another spiritual blessings refers to the future when he says: the glory, namely, of the sons of God promised to them. A reference to this is found in Ex (40:32): "The glory of the Lord filled the tabernacle." Then he sets out other, figural benefits, of which there were figures of present spiritual benefit. The first of these is the covenant, i.e., the pact of circumcision given to Abraham, as is recorded in Gen c. 17, although this could be referred to the new covenant preached first to the Jews. Hence, the Lord Himself said: "I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel" (Mt 15:24); and Jer (31:31): "I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel." The second is the Law given through Moses; hence, he continues: the giving of the law: "Moses commanded a law to us" (Sir 24:33). The third is 366 divine worship when he says: the worship with which they served God, when all the other nations were serving idols: "But now hear, O Jacob my servant, Israel whom I have chosen" (Is 44:1). Then he mentions the blessing which pertains to future glory when he says: and the promises. For the promises made in the Old Testament and fulfilled by Christ seem made especially to the Jews; hence he says below (15:8): "I tell you that Christ became a servant to the circumcised to confirm the promises made to the patriarchs." Now many other promises were made to them about earthly goods, as is recorded in Lev (c. 26) and Dt (c. 18), but by these temporal goods spiritual [goods] were prefigured. 745. Third he describes the Jews’ dignity by their origin, when he says: to them belong the Patriarchs, because they were begotten according to the flesh by those ancestors who were especially acceptable to God: "I love your fathers and chose their descendants after them" (Dt 4:37); "Like the first fruit on the fig tree I saw their fathers" (Hos 9:1). 746. Fourthly, he shows their greatness from the a descendant when he says: and of their race, according to the flesh, is the Christ Who says: "Salvation is from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). 747. Then to prevent this from being underestimated he shows the greatness of Christ, saying: Who is God over all, blessed for ever. Amen: "This is the true God and eternal life" (I Jn 5:20). In these words four heresies are refuted: first, Manichean, which held that Christ had not a true but imaginary body. This is refuted when he says, according to the flesh. 367 For He has true flesh, as it says in Lk (24:39): "A spirit has not flesh and bones as you see that I have." Secondly, Valentinus’ heresy which claims that Christ’s body was not taken from the human line but brought from heaven. This is excluded when he says that Christ was from the Jews according to the flesh, in keeping with Mt (1:1): "The book of the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the son of David, the son of Abraham." Thirdly, the heresy of Nestorius according to whom the Son of man was other than the Son of God. Against this the Apostle says here that He is from the patriarchs according to the flesh Who is God over all. Fourthly, the Arian heresy, which claimed that Christ was less than the Father and created form nothing. Against the first he says that He is over all; against the second that He is blessed for ever. For it is true of God alone that His goodness remains forever.

After asserting the greatness of the Jews [n. 735], the Apostle now shows that it did not refer to those who descended according to the flesh from the ancient patriarchs but to the spiritual progeny chosen by God. First, he shows that this greatness arises from God's selection; secondly, that this selection applies generally to Jew and Gentiles [v. 24; n. 796]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he shows how from God's choice men obtain spiritual greatness; secondly, he raises a question about the justice of God's choice [v. 14; n. 765]. In regard to the first he does two things: First, he states his proposition; secondly shows it [v. 7b; n. 751]. Concerning the first, he does two things. First he sets out the firmness of the divine election; second, he shows in whom it is accomplished [v. 6b; n. 750]. 369 749. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that the promises, the adoption of sons, and glory referred to people whose fall is to me a source of great sadness and unceasing sorrow. But it is not as though the word of God had failed, i.e., was frustrated, because although it has found no place in those who had fallen, it has a place in others: "The word that goes forth from my mouth shall not return to me empty, but it shall accomplish that which I purpose" (Is 55:11); "For ever, O Lord, thy word is firmly fixed" (Ps 119:89). 750. Then (v. 6b) he shows how and in whom God's word had failed. In regard to this it should be noted that the Jews boasted mainly of two things, namely, Abraham, who first received the pact of circumcision from God (Gen c.17) and Jacob of Israel, all of whom descendants were counted as God's people. This was not true of Isaac, for the descendants of his son Esau did not belong to God's people. Hence the Apostle states his proposition: first, by a comparison with Jacob: For not all who are descended form Israel i.e., from Jacob according to the flesh, are true Israelites, to whom God's promises belong, but those who are upright and see God by faith: "Fear not, Jacob, and thus most righteous whom I have chosen" (Is 44:2). Hence the Lord also said to Nathanael: "Behold, an Israelite indeed, in whom there is no guile" (Jn 1:47). Now this name, "Israel," had been put on Jacob by an angel (Gen c.32). Secondly, he states the same things by comparison with Abraham saying: and not all are children of Abraham because they are his descendants, i.e., are not the spiritual sons of Abraham to whom God promised the blessings, but only those who imitate his faith and works: "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did" (Jn 8:40). 370 751. Then (v. 7b) he clarifies his statement: first, in regard to Abraham; secondly, in regard to Jacob [v. 10; n. 755]. 752. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he cites a text from Scripture, saying: through Isaac shall your descendants be named. This the Lord said to Abraham, as it says in Gen (c. 21), when describing the expulsion of Ishmael. As if to say: not all who were born from Abraham according to the flesh belong to that seed to whom the promises were made, but hose who are like Isaac. 753. Then (v. 8) he explains the quoted text so far as it applies to his thesis. To understand this it should be noted that the Apostle says in Gal (4:22): "Abraham had two sons, on e by a slave and one by a free woman. But the son of the slave," namely, Ishmael, "was born according to the flesh," because he was born according to the law and custom of the flesh from a young woman: "the son of the free woman," namely, Isaac, "through promise" and not according to the flesh, i.e., not according to the law and custom of the flesh, because he was born from a sterile, old woman, as it says in Gen (c.18); although he was born according to the flesh, i.e., according to the substance of the flesh he received from his parents. From this the Apostle decides that those adopted into the sonship of God are not the sons of the flesh, i.e., not because they are the bodily descendants of Abraham, but the children of the promise are descendants, i.e., those who are made songs of Abraham because they imitate his faith, as it says in Mt (3:9): "God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham." Thus, Ishmael, born according to the flesh was not numbered among the seed, but Isaac born by the promise was. 371 Thirdly, (v.9) he proves that his explanation is valid, when he says that the children of the promise are the ones signified by Isaac, namely, because Isaac was born as the result of a promise. Hence he says: For this is what the promise said. Indeed, this is the statement the angel or the Lord through an angel made to Abraham: About this time I will return, by which the time of grace is signified: "When the time had fully come, God sent forth his Son" (Gal 4:4) and Sarah shall have a son on account of the promise. Hence, it says in Gal (4:5): "So that we might receive adoption of sons." 755. Then (v. 10) he clarifies his thesis so far as it concerns Jacob. First he states his intention; secondly, he clarifies his position [v. 11; n. 757]. 756. First, therefore, he says: And not only she, namely, Sarah, begot a son about whom the promise was made, but also Rebecca, having in her womb two sons, one of whom pertained to the promise and the other only to the flesh, had conceived children by one man, our forefather Isaac. For it says in Gen (25:21): "Isaac prayed to the Lord for his wife, because she was barren, and the Lord gave her conception, but the children struggled together within her." And it should be noted that the Apostle cites this against the Jews who supposed that they would obtain righteousness through the merits of their forefathers, which is contrary to what is said about just men, namely, that "they will deliver neither sons nor daughters but they alone will be delivered" (Ez 14:18). This is why John said to the Jews: "Do not presume to say, 'We have Abraham as our father'" (Mt 3:9). Paul, therefore, 372 counters this opinion by reminding them that of Abraham's children one was chosen and the other rejected. But he could have ascribed this difference to the mothers, because Ishmael was born of a slave and Isaac of a free woman, or to the changed meriting state of the father; because while uncircumcised he begot Ishmael but circumcised he begot Isaac. To exclude any such subterfuge, therefore, he cites the case where one is chosen and the other rejected, even though both were born of the same father and the same mother at the same time and, indeed, from one coition. 757. Then (v. 11) he clarifies his thesis: first, by the authority of Gen (c. 28); secondly, by a text from the prophet Malachi (v. 13). 758. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he indicates the time of the promise and says that when they were not yet born, one of the sons of Rebecca was set over the other in virtue of the promise. And just as his previous statement excluded the opinion of the Jews trusting in the merits of their forefathers, so this statement counters the error of the Manicheans who claimed that a person's life and death were controlled by the constellation under which he was born, against what is said in Jer (10:2) "Be not afraid of the signs of heaven which the heathens fear." Then when he continues: though they had done nothing either good or bad, the Pelagian error is refuted which says that grace is given according to one's preceding merits, even though it says in *** (3:5): "He saved us, not because of deeds done by us in righteousness, but in virtue of his own mercy." 373 Both of these are shown false by the fact that before birth and before doing anything one of Rebecca's sons is preferred to the other. This also corrects Origen's error who supposed that men's souls were created when the angels were, and that they merited different lives depending on the merits they earned for the good or evil they had done there. This could not be true in the light of what is stated here, namely that they had done nothing either good or bad. Against this also is Job (38:7): "Where were you when the morning stars praised me together and all the sons of God made joyful melody?" For according to Origen's error, he could have answered: I was among those joyful sons of God. 759. Secondly, he shows what could be understood from that promise by which one of the twins in the womb was chosen over the other. He says: In order that God's purpose, by which one would be greater than the other, might continue, i.e., be made firm: and this not by reason of merits but of election i.e., inasmuch as God himself spontaneously forechose one over the other, not because he was holy but in order that he be holy, as it says in Eph (1:4): "He chose us in himself before the foundation of the world that we should be holy." But this is a decree of predestination about which the same text says: "Predestined according to the purpose of his will" (Eph 1:15). 760. Thirdly, he sets down the promise, saying, not because of works, for no works preceded it, as has been said: but because of his call, i.e., through the grace of God calling, for she was told, i.e., Rebecca, that the elder, i.e., Esau, will serve the younger, i.e., Jacob. This can be understood in three ways. 761. In one way, as referring to the persons involved, and then Esau is understood to have served Jacob, not directly but indirectly, inasmuch as the persecution he launched 374 27 A capsa was a box for holding parchment scrolls. A capsarius was slave whose job it was to carry the scrolls. against him ended in Jacob's benefit, as it says in Pr (11:29): "The fool will serve the wise." Secondly, it can be referred to the people who sprang from each, because the Edomites were once subject to the Israelites, as it says in Ps 60 (v.8); "Upon Edom I cast my shoe." This seems to fit Gen (25:23): "The nations are in your womb; the one shall be stronger than the other." Thirdly, it can be taken figuratively so that by the elder is understood the Jewish people, who were the first to receive the adoption of sons, in accord with Ex 4:22, "Israel is my firstborn son," and by the younger is understood the Gentiles, who were called to the Father later and were signified by the prodigal son (Lk c. 15). The elder people in this case serve the younger, inasmuch as the Jews are our capsarii,27 guarding the books form which the truths of our faith are drawn: "Search the scriptures" (Jn 5:39). 762. Then (v. 13) he proves his point by the authority of the prophet Malachi speaking in the person of God Who says: Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated. A gloss on this says that the statement, the elder will serve the younger, was spoken from foreknowledge, but that the present statement results from judgment, i.e., that God loved Jacob on account of his good works, just as He loves all the saints: "I love those who love me (Pr 8:17), but he hated Esau on account of his sings, as it says in Si (12:3): "The Highest hates sinners." But because man's love is preceded by God's love: "Not that we loved God, but that he has first loved us" (1 Jn 4:20), we must say that Jacob was loved by God before he 375 loved God. Nor can it be said that God began to love him at a fixed point in time; otherwise His love would be changeable. Consequently, one must say that God loved Jacob from all eternity, as it says in Jer (31:3): "I have loved you with an everlasting love." 763. Now these words of the Apostle identify in God three things pertaining to the saints, namely, election, by which is understood God's predestination and election. In God these are really the same, but in our understanding they differ. For it is called God's love, inasmuch as he wills good to a person absolutely; it is election, inasmuch as through the good he wills for a person, he prefers him to someone else. But it is called predestination, inasmuch as he directs a person to the good he wills for him by loving and choosing him. According to these definitions predestination comes after love, just as the will's fixation on the end naturally precedes the process of directing things towards the end. Election and love, however, are ordered differently in God than in man. For in men, election precedes love, for a man's will is inclined to love a thing on account of the good perceived in it, this good also being the reason why he prefers one thing to another and why he fixed his love on the thing he preferred. But God's love is the cause of every good found in a creature; consequently, the good in virtue of which one is preferred to another through election follows upon Gods willing it—which pertains to His love, Consequently, it is not in virtue of some good which He selects in a man that God love him; rather, it is because He loved him that He prefers him to someone by election. 376 764. But just as the love, about which we are speaking, pertains to Gods eternal predestination, so the hatred about which we are speaking pertains to the rejection by which God rejects sinners. It should not be supposed that this rejection is temporal, because nothing in the divine will is temporal; rather, it is eternal. Furthermore, it is akin to love or predestination in some respect and different in another. It is akin in the sense that just as predestination is preparation for glory, so rejection is preparation for punishment: "For a burning place has long been prepared, yes, for the king it is made ready" (Is 30:33). It is different in that predestination implies preparation of the merits by which glory is reached, but rejection implies preparation of the sins by which punishment is reached. Consequently, a foreknowledge of merits cannot be the reason for predestination, because the foreknown merits fall under predestination; but the foreknowledge of sins can be a reason for rejection on the part of the punishment prepared for the rejected, inasmuch as God proposes to punish the wicked for the sins they have from themselves, not from God; the just He proposes to reward on account of the merits they do not have from themselves: "Destruction is thy own, O Israel; thy help is only in me" (Hos 13:9).

After showing that by God's choice one is preferred to the other not from works but from the grace of the one calling [n. 748], the Apostle now inquires into the justice of this choice. First, he raises a question; secondly, he answers it [v. 14b; n. 768]; thirdly, he objects against the solution [v. 19; n. 786]. 766. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that God chose one and rejected the other without any preceding merit. What shall we say then? Does this enable us to prove that there is injustice on God's part? It seems so. For it pertains to justice that things be dispensed equally to equals. But when differences arising from merit are removed, men are equal. Therefore, if without consideration of merits God dispensed unequally by choosing one and rejecting the other, it seems that there is injustice to Him; contrary to what is said in Dt (32:4) 378 "God is faithful and without any iniquity"; "Righteous art thou, O Lord, and right are thy judgments" (Ps 119:137). 767. It should be noted that Origen fell into error trying to solve this objection. For he says in his Periarchon that from the beginning God made only spiritual creatures and all were equal, lest he be charged with injustice for any inequality; later, differences among these creatures arose from differences of merit. For some of those spiritual creatures were turned to God by love, some more and some less; on this basis the various orders of angels were distinguished. Others turned from God, some more and some less; on this basis they were bound to bodies, either noble or lowly; some to heavenly bodies, some to bodies of demons, some to bodies of men. Accordingly, the reason or making and distinguishing bodily creatures is the sin of spiritual creatures. But this is against what is said in Gen (1:31): "God saw everything which he had made, and it was very good," which gives us to understand that goodness was the cause of producing bodily creatures, as Augustine says in The City of God (c.11). 768. Therefore, we must set aside this opinion and see how the Apostle solves the problem when he says: Let it not be! In regard to this he does two things: first, he solves the problem with respect to choosing the saints; secondly, with respect to hating and rejecting the wicked [v. 17; n. 799]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he proposes the scriptural text from which the solution comes; secondly, he draws the conclusion from it [v. 16; n. 775]. 379 769. The text he adduces is from Ex (33:19) where the Lord said to Moses: "I will be gracious to whom I will and I will be merciful to whom it shall please me." But the Apostle quotes it according to the Septuagint version saying: For the Lord says to Moses: 'I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion. The meaning is that all our blessings are ascribed to God's mercy, as it says in Is (63:7): "I will remember the tender mercies of the Lord, the praise of the Lord for all the things the Lord has bestowed upon us"; and in Lam (3:22): "The mercies of the Lord that we are not consumed; because his commiserations have not failed. 770. The text Paul cites is explained in two ways in a Goss, so that it solves the question and the objection in two ways. First, I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, i.e., on him who is worthy of mercy. To amplify this he repeats: I will have compassion on whom I have compassion, i.e., on whom I judge worthy of compassion, as it says in Ps 103 (v.13): "The Lord has compassion on them that fear him." It follows from this that although he imparts his blessings from mercy, he is nevertheless excused from injustice; for he gives to those who should be given and does not give to one who should not be given, according to the correctness of His judgment. 771. But having mercy on one who is worthy can be understood in two ways: in one way so that one is counted worthy of mercy on account of preexisting works in this life, though not in another life, as Origen supposed. This belongs to the Pelagian heresy which taught that God's grace is given to men according to their merits. But this cannot stand, because, as has been stated, the good merits themselves are from God and are the effects of predestination. 380 772. But there is another way in which one is considered worthy of mercy, not on account of merits preceding grace, but on account of merits subsequent to grace; for example, if God gives a person grace and He planned from eternity to give him that grace which He foresaw would be used well. According to this the Gloss is saying that He has mercy on him who should be given mercy. Hence he says: I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, i.e., by calling and bestowing grace, I will have mercy on him to whom I know beforehand that I will show mercy, knowing that he will be converted and abide with me. But it seems that not even this is a suitable explanation. For it is clear that nothing which is an effect of predestination can be taken as a reason for a predestination, even if it be taken as existing in God's foreknowledge, because the reason for a predestination is presupposed to the predestination, whereas the effect is included in it. But every benefit God bestows on a man for his salvation is an effect of predestination. Furthermore, God's benefits extend not only to the infusion of grace, by which a man is made righteous, but also to its use, just as in natural things God not only causes their forms but all the movements and activities of those forms, inasmuch as God is the source of all movement in such a way that when He ceases to act, no movement or activity proceeds from those forms. But sanctifying grace and the accompanying virtues in the soul are related to their use as a natural form is related to its activity. Hence, it is states in Is (26:12): "O Lord, thou hast wrought for us all our works." 773. Aristotle proves this in a particular way when he discusses the works of the human will. 381 For since man is open to opposites, say to sitting or not sitting, it must be resolved by something else. But this is done by deliberation, which is followed by choosing one over the other. But again, since man has the power to deliberate or not to deliberate, it will be necessary that something move him to deliberate. But since this does not proceed ad infinitum, there must be some external principal superior to man which moves him to deliberate—and this principle is none other than God. In this way, then, the very use of grace is from God. But this does not mean that sanctifying grace is superfluous, any more than natural forms are superfluous, even though God works in all, as it says in Wis (8:1): "Wisdom orders all things sweetly," because through their forms all things are inclined spontaneously, as it were, to that to which they are planned by God. Consequently, it is impossible that the merits which follow grace are the reason for showing mercy or for predestination; the only reason is God's will, according to which he mercifully delivers certain ones. For it is clear that distributive justice has its field in things given as due; for example, if some persons have earned wage, more should be given to those who have done more work. But it has no place in things given spontaneously and out of mercy; for example, if a person meets two beggars and gives one an alms, he is not unjust but merciful. Similarly, if a person has been offended equally by two people and he forgives one but not the other, he is merciful to the one, just to the other, but unjust to neither. For since all men are born subject to damnation on account of the sin of the first parent, those whom God delivers by His grace He delivers by His mercy alone; and so He is merciful to those whom He delivers, just to those whom He does not deliver, but unjust to none. 382 Thus, the Apostle solves the question with a text which ascribes all to divine mercy. 774. Yet it should be noted that God's mercy is viewed according to three aspects: first, according to predestination by which He proposed from all eternity to deliver certain ones: "The mercy of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting" (Ps 103:17); secondly, according to His calling and justifying, by which He saves men in time: "He saved us in his mercy" (*** 3:5); thirdly, according to the bestowal of glory, when He frees from all misery: "Who crowns you with steadfast love and mercy" (Ps 103:4). Therefore, he says: I will have mercy, namely, by calling and justifying, on whom I have mercy by predestining and having compassion and finally by crowning with glory him on whom I have mercy by calling and justifying. This interpretation is more in keeping with the version before me: "I will be gracious to whom I will, and I will be merciful to whom it shall please me" where divine mercy is clearly ascribed not to merits but solely to the divine will. 775. Then (v. 16) he draws his conclusion from the authority he cited. This conclusion can be understood in a number of ways; in one say thus: So a man's salvation depends not on man's will or exertion, i.e., it is not owing to anyone through any willing of his own or any outward action; but on God's mercy, i.e., it proceeds from the sole mercy of God. What follows from the authority cited is found in Dr (9:4): "Do not say in your heart, 'It is because of my righteousness that the Lord has brought me into this land.'" 776. But it can be understood in another sense: all things proceed form God's mercy; so it depends not on man's will to will or exertion to exert oneself, but each 383 depends on God's mercy, as it says in 1 Cor (15:10): "it was not I but the grace of God which is with me," and in Jn (15:5): "Without me you can do nothing." 777. But if this is all that is understood in this word, since even grace without man's free judgment does not will or strive, he could have said the converse, namely, it does not depends on God's mercy but on man's will or exertion, which is offensive to pious ears. Consequently, something more must be understood from these words, if first place is to be given to God's grace. For an action is attributed more to the principal agent than to the secondary, as when we say that the hammer does not make the box but the carpenter by using the hammer. But man's will is moved to good by God, as it says above: "All who are led by the Spirit of God are sons of God" (Rom 8:14); therefore, an inward action of man is not to be attributed principally to man but to God: "It is God who of his good pleasure works in you both the will and the performance" (Phil 2:13). But if willing does not depend on the man willing or exertion on the man exerting himself, but on God moving man to this, it seems that man is not master of his own action, which pertains to freedom of will. But the answer is that God moves all things, but in diverse ways, inasmuch as each is moved in a manner befitting its nature. And so man is moved by God to will and to perform outwardly in a manner consistent with free will. Therefore, willing and performing depends on man as freely acting; but on God and not on man, as initial mover. 384 779. Then (v. 17) he solves the above problem as it refers to rejection of the wicked. First, he quotes an authority; secondly, he draws the conclusion (v. 18). 780. He says, therefore: It has been shown that there is no injustice, when God loves the just from all eternity. But neither is there injustice in rejecting the wicked from all eternity. For out of God's mouth the Scripture says, I have raised you up, or according to another rendition: "Have preserved you" for the very purpose of showing my power in you, so that my name may be proclaimed in all the earth. 781. The first point to notice here is what God does in regard to the rejected. He shows this when he says: For this purpose have I preserved you, i.e. you had deserved to die for the evils you had done: Those who do such things deserve to die" (Rom 1:32), but I did not call you to die at once; rather I preserved you in life for this purpose, namely, of showing my power in you. This interpretation can also be obtained from the version which reads: I have raised you up, i.e., although before me you deserved to be dead, I granted you life, as if I had raised you up. From this it appears that God works no injustice against the rejected, sine they deserved to be destroyed at once for their crimes; rather, the fact that He preserves their life proceeds from His exceeding goodness: "Correct me, O Lord, but yet with judgment; and not in thy fury, lest thou bring me to nothing" (Jer 10:24). Another interpretation is this, I have raised you up for sin, that you might become worse. This should not be understood as though God causes sin in man; rather, it should be understood in a permissive sense, namely, that from His just judgment he permits 385 some to fall into sin on account of previous sins, as it says above (1:28): "God gave them up to a base mind." But it seems to me that still more must be understood here, namely, that men are moved to good and to evil y God through an inward prompting. Hence, Augustine says in his book On Grace and Free Will that God works in men's hearts to incline their wills whithersoever He wills, either to good through His mercy or to evil according to their deserts. Thus, God is aid very often to tire p men to do good, as it says in Dan (13:45): "The Lord raised up the holy spirit of a young boy." He is also said to raise up others to do evil, as in Is (13:1): "I will stir up the Medes against them and with their arrows they shall kill the children." However, He stirs them to good and to evil in different ways: for he inclines men's wills to good directly as the author of these good deeds; but he is said to incline or stir up men to evil as an occasional cause, namely, inasmuch as God puts before a person, either in him or outside of him something which of itself is conducive to good but which through his own malice he uses for evil: "Do you not know that God's kindness is meant to lead you to repentance? But by your hard and impenitent heart you are storing up wrath for yourself on the day of wrath" (Rom 2:4-5) and "God gave his place for penance: and he abused it unto pride" (Jb 24:23). Similarly, as far as in him lies, God enlightens a man inwardly to good, say a king to defend the rights of his kingdom or to punish rebels. But he abuses this good impulse according to the malice of his heart. This is plain in Is (10:6) where it is said of Assyria: "Against a godless nation I send him and against the people of my wrath I command him to take spoil and seize plunder..." and further on: "But he does not so intend, and his mind 386 does not so think, but it is in his mind to destroy." That is the way it happened with Pharaoh, who, when he was prompted by God to defend his kingdom, abused this suggestion and practiced cruelty. 782. Secondly, there is need to consider the purpose behind God's doing certain things and permitting certain things. For one must remember that God works in creatures to manifest Himself, as it says in Rom (1:20): "His invisible nature has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made"; hence these promptings are ordained to this manifestation both for those present, for the very purpose of showing my power in you, "and Israel saw the great work which the Lord did against the Egyptians Ex (14:3), and for those absent, so that my name may be proclaimed in all the earth. Thus, it is clear that in this matter there in no injustice in God, because he uses his creature according to its merits for his glory. And it can be interpreted in the same sense if it be said I have raised you up, i.e., I have ordered your malice to my glory; for God orders the malice, but does not cause it. 783. Then (v. 18) he draws a conclusion from the two texts cited: from the text, I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, he concludes: Therefore he has mercy upon whomever he wills: "The Lord has mercy on them that fear him" (Ps 103:11); from the text, I have raised you up, he concludes, and he hardens the heart of whomever he wills: "You have hardened our heart, so that we fear thee not: (Is 3:17); "Some of them he blessed and exalted, and some of them hath he cursed and brought low" (Sir 33:12). There seems to be no difficulty about God's mercy, once we grant what has been said above. 387 784. But two difficulties seem to exist in regard to hardening: first, hardening of heart seems allied to sin, as it says in Sir (3:27): "A hard heart shall fear evil at the last." Consequently, if God hardens the heart, He is the author of a sin—contrary to what is said in Jas (1:13): "God is no tempter to evil." The answer is that God is not said to harden anyone directly, as though He causes their malice, but indirectly, inasmuch as man makes an occasion of sin out of things God does within or outside the man; and this God Himself permits. Hence, he is not said to harden as though by inserting malice, but by not affording grace. The second difficulty is that this hardening does not seem ascribable to the divine will, since it is written: "This is the will of God, your sanctification" (I Th 4:3) and "He desires all men to be saved" (1 Tim 2:4). The answer is that both mercy and justice imply a disposition of the will. Hence, just as mercy is attributed to the divine will, so also that which is just. Therefore, the interpretation is that he has mercy upon whomever he wills through His mercy and he hardens whomever he wills through His justice, because those whom He hardens deserve to be hardened by Him, as was stated above in chapter 1.

Having solved the question proposed [n. 765], the Apostle objects to the solution, particularly to the last part, which states that God has mercy on whomever He wills and hardens whomever He wills. First, he places the objection; secondly, the solution [v. 20; n. 788]. 787. First, therefore, he says: We have said that God has mercy on whomever He wills and hardens whomever He wills. You will say to me then: Why does he still find fault? i.e., what need is there to inquire any further into the cause of the good and evil done here, since all things are attributed to the divine will, which is a sufficient cause, since no one can resist Him? Hence he continues: For who can resist his will?" I applied my mind to seek and to search out by wisdom all that is done under heaven" (Ec 1:13). Or in another way: Why does he still find fault? i.e., why does God complain about men when they sin, as in Is (1:2): "some have I reared and brought up, but they have rebelled against me." Therefore, He does not seem to have a just complaint, because it all proceeds from His will, which no one can resist. Hence he adds: Who can resist his will? 389 Or still another way: Why does he still find fault, i.e., why is man still required to do good and avoid evil: "He has showed you , O man, what is good and what does the Lord require of you but o do justice, and love mercy and walk with your God?" (Mic 6:8). For it is useless to require of someone that which is not in his power. But nothing seems to lie in man’s power, according to the above, in which all things seem ascribed to the divine will, which cannot be resisted. He adds: For who can resist his will? As if to say: no one. "There is none that can resist they majesty" (Est 13:11). And this seems to be the Apostle's meaning. 788. Then (v. 20) he answers the question. To understand his answer it should be noted that with regard to the election of the good and the rejection of the wicked two questions can arise. One is general, namely, why does God will to harden some and be merciful to some; the other is particular, namely, why does He will to be merciful to this one and harden this or that one? Although a reason other God's will can be assigned, in the first question the only reason that can be assigned in the second question is God's absolute will. An example is found among humans. For if a builder has at hand many similar and equal stones, the reason why he puts certain ones at the top an others at the bottom can be gathered from his purpose, because the perfection of the house he intends to build requires both a foundation with stones at the bottom and walls of a certain height with stones at the top. But the reason why he put these stones on the to and those others at the bottom seems to be merely that the builder so willed. First, therefore, the Apostle answers the problem involved in the second question, namely why He has mercy on this one and hardens that one; 390 secondly, the problem involved in the first question, namely, why He is merciful to some and hardens others [v. 22; n. 792]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he censures the questioner's presumption; secondly, he cites an authority which solves the question [v. 21; n. 790]; thirdly, he explains the authority [v. 21b; n. 791]. 789. First, therefore, he says: But who are you, O man, fragile and unknowing, to answer back to God" How would you answer Him, if He were to contend with you in judgment? "If one wished to contend with him, one could not answer him once in a thousand times" (Jb 9:3). Again, as it says in Jb (39:30): "He who argues with God let him answer him." In this we are given to understand that man should not examine the reason for God's judgments with the intention of comprehending them, for they exceed human reason: "Seek not the things that are too high for thee" (Sir 3:22); "He that is a searcher of majesty shall be overwhelmed by glory" (Pr 25:27). 790. Then (v. 20b) he cites the authority of Is (29:16): "Shall the thing made say of its maker, He did not make me?" Here it should be noted that if an artisan uses base matter to make a beautiful vessel for noble uses, it is all ascribed to the goodness of the artisan; for example, if from clay he fashions pitchers and serving-dishes suited to a banquet table. If, on the other hand, from such base matter, say clay, he produced a vessel adapted to meaner uses, for example, for cooking or such, the vessel, if it could think, would have no complaint. But 391 it could complain, if from precious metals, such as gold and precious stones, the artisan were to make a vessel reserved for base uses. But human nature has baseness about it from its matter, because as Gen (2:7) says: "God formed man of dust from the ground," and more baseness after being spoiled by sin, which entered this world through one man. That is why man is compared to dirt, in Jb (30:19) "I am compared to dirt and I am likened to dust and ashes." Hence, any good that man possesses is due to God's goodness as its basic source: "O Lord, thou art our Father, we are the clay, and thou art the potter, we are all the work of they hand" (Is 64:8). Furthermore, if God does not advance man to better things but leaves him in his weakness and reserves him for the lowliest use, He does him no injury such that he could justly complain about God. 791. Then (v. 21) the Apostle explains the words of the prophet. As if to say What is molded, i.e., the vessel., should not say to the potter: Why have you made me thus?, because the potter is free to make anything he wishes out of the clay. Hence he says: Has the potter no right over the clay, to make without any injury to it out of the same lump of base matter one vessel for honor, i.e., for honorable use and another for dishonor, i.e., for meaner uses: "In a great house there are not only vessels of gold and silver but also of wood and earthenware, and some for noble use, some for ignoble." (2 Tim. 2:20). In the same way God has free power to make from the same spoiled matter of the human race, as from a clay, and without any injustice some men prepared for glory and some abandoned in wretchedness: "Behold, like the clay in the potter's hand, so are you in my hand, O house of Israel" (Is 18:6). 392 792. Then (v. 22) he answers the first question, namely, why God wills to be merciful to some and leave others in wretchedness, i.e., to choose some and reject others. Here it should be noted that the end of all divine works ins the manifestation of divine goodness: "The Lord has made all things for himself" (Pr 16:4). Hence, it was stated above that the invisible things of God have been clearly perceived in the things that have been made (1:20). But the excellence of the divine goodness is so great that it cannot be manifested in one way or in one creature. Consequently, he created diverse creatures in which He is manifested in diverse ways. This is particularly true in rational creatures in whom is justice is manifested with regard to those he benefits according to their deserts and His mercy in those He delivers by His grace. Therefore, to manifest both of these in man He mercifully delivers some, but not all. First, therefore, he gives an account of the rejections of the wicked; secondly, of the election of the good [v. 23; n. 794]. 793. In both cases three differences should be considered. First, with respect to the end; secondly, with respect to use; thirdly, with respect to the divine act. Now the end of the rejection or hardening of the wicked is the manifestation of divine justice and power. Referring to this he says: What, i.e., But if God, desiring to show him wrath, i.e., retaliatory justice. For wrath is said of God not as an emotion but as the effect of retaliation: "The wrath of God is revealed from heaven" (Rom 1:18). Then he adds: and to make known his power, because God not only uses wrath, i.e., retribution, by punishing those subject to him, but also by subjecting them to himself by his power: 393 "According to his work by which he can subject all things to himself" (Phil 3:21); "And they saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea shore, and the mighty hand that the Lord had used against them" (Ex 14:31). The use which God makes of the wicked is wrath, i.e., punishment. And this is why he calls them vessels of wrath, i.e., instruments of justice that God uses to show wrath, i.e., retributive justice: "We were by nature children of wrath" (Eph 2:3). But God’s action toward them is not that he disposes them to evil, since they of themselves have a disposition to evil from the corruption of the first sin. Hence he says fit for destruction, i.e., having in themselves an disposition towards eternal condemnation: "God saw that the wickedness of men was great on the earth, and that all the thought of their heart was bent upon evil at all times" (Gen 6:5). The only thing God does concerning them is that he lets them do what they want. Hence not without meaning does he say has endured. And the fact that he does not exact retribution immediately shows his patience; so he adds with much patience: "The most high is a patient rewarder" (Sir 5:4). 794. Then on the part of the good he likewise sets out three things. First the end, when he says in order to make known the riches of his glory. For the end of the election and mercy shown the good is that he might manifest in them the abundance of his goodness by calling them back from evil, drawing them to justice, and finally leading them into glory. And this is the meaning of that he might show the riches of his glory, the riches concerning which he said above (2:4), "Or do you despise the riches of his goodness?" "God who is rich in mercy" (Eph 2:4). 394 And it is significant that he says in order to make known the riches of his glory, because the very condemnation and reprobation of the wicked, carried out in accord with God’s justice, makes known and highlights the glory of the saints, who were freed from such misery as this. Second he describes their use, when he says for the vessels of mercy. He names them vessels of mercy because God uses them as instruments to show his mercy: "These were men of mercy" (Sir 44:10). Thirdly he sets out God’s action in their regard. For God does not merely endure them, as though they were of themselves disposed to the good, but rather he prepares and disposes them by calling them to glory. Hence he says which he has prepared beforehand for glory: "Preparing the mountains by your power." 795. Even to this point the Apostle uses an incomplete and suspensive construction, so that the meaning is: If God wants to do this, to have mercy on some and harden others, what can justly be said against it? As though to imply: Nothing. For he does not will to harden them in such a way that he compels them to sin, but rather he endures them so that they may tend to evil by their own inclination.

After showing that God's grace is given to men as a result of God's election through which men are called to grace [n. 748], the Apostle shows that such election or calling applies not only to the Jews (as if they could boast on account of what is said in Dt (4:37): "He loved your fathers,") but also to the Gentiles. First, he states the intended proposition; secondly, he proves it [v. 25; n. 798] 396 thirdly, he draws the conclusion [v. 30; n. 807]. 797. First, therefore he says: We have states that God prepared the saints for glory, whom he also called, namely, by His grace, not from the Jews only but also from the Gentiles: "Is God the God of the Jews only? Is he not the God of Gentiles also?" (Rom 3:29): "They shall adore him, every man from his own place, all the islands of the Gentiles" (Zeph 2:11). 798. The (v. 25) he proves the proposition: first, with respect to the Gentiles, secondly, the Jews [v. 27; n. 801]. In regard to the first he cites two texts from Hosea speaking fro the Gentiles: the first of these promises them God's gifts; the second, divine sonship [v. 26; n. 800]. 799. First, therefore, he says: As the Lord says in Hosea, because it was he who spoke in the prophets: "The spirit of the Lord spoke through me, his word is upon my tongue" (2 Sam 23:2). Hence, too, it says in Hosea (1:2) "When the Lord first spoke through Hosea." Here it should be noted that the Gentiles were cut off from three blessings for which the Jews were famous: first, divine sonship, by reason of which they were called the people of God, as though serving Him and obeying His precepts: "We are the people of his pasture and the sheep of his herd" (Ps. 96:7). But the Gentiles were alienated from the society of this people, as it says in Eph (2:12): "Alienated from the commonwealth of Israel and strangers to the covenants of promise." However, through Christ they have become God's people: "He gave himself for us to purify for himself a people of his own" 397 (*** 2:14). And that is what he says: Those who were not my people, i.e., the Gentiles, I will call my people, i.e., that they be my people. The second is the privilege of divine love: "The Lord loves the people of Israel" (Hos 3:1), because He offered them many benefits leading to special graces. From this love the Gentiles had formerly been excluded: "Alienated from God's truth because of the ignorance that is in them" (Eph 3:18). Hence, he says: and her who was not beloved, i.e., the Gentile races, I will call my beloved: "You who were once far off have been brought near in the blood of Christ" (Eph 2:13), "While we were enemies, we were reconciled to God by the death of hi Son" (Rom 5:10). The third is deliverance from original sin through circumcision: "The Lord will have compassion on Jacob" (Is 14:1). But the Gentiles had no share in this compassion: "On the day you were born your navel string was not out and no eye pitied you, to do any of these things to you out of compassion for you" (Ex 16:5). But later through Christ they obtained compassion: "He saved us in virtue of his own mercy" (*** 3:5). He cites this text from Hosea according to the Septuagint, in the place where our text has: "I will have mercy on her who was without mercy, and I will so to not my people, ‘You are my people’" (Hos 2:23). 800. Then (v. 25) he cites another text from Hosea in which they are promised the dignity of being sons of God, about which the Jews boasted because, as it says in Is (1:2): "Sons have I reared and brought up" and in Dt (32:6): "Is he not your father?" For the Gentiles not only were not called sons, which applies to those who serve God out of love and are led by the Sprit of God; they were not even worthy to be called 398 the people of God, which could apply at least to those who had received the spirit of servitude in fear. Hence, he says: And in the very place, i.e., in Judea, where it was said to them, i.e., to the Gentiles by the Jews speaking as though in God's person: You are not my people, because they did not consider them God's people, there, i.e., even among the believing Jews, they will be called sons of God. Or in the very place, i.e., in the entire world where they will be converted to the faith. This would indicate that they would not be converted in the same way as proselytes, who would leave their native land and journey to Judea. That this would not happen in the case of those converted to Christ is shown in Zeph (2:11): "To him they shall bow down, each in his own place." Therefore, to each one living in his own place, where it was said to them in former times, "You are not my people," there will be called sons of God by divine adoption: "To all who believed in his name, he gave them power to become children of God" (Jn 1:12). 801. Then (v. 29) he proves his proposition with respect to the Jews and presents two texts from Isaiah. The first of these seems to pertain to all the Jews who came to believe; the second particularly to the Apostle [v. 29; n. 806]. 802. First, therefore, he says: We have indicated what Hosea said about the Gentiles. But Isaiah cries out, i.e., clearly speaks about the conversion of Israel: "Cry, cease not, lift up they voice like a trumpet" (Is 58:1). In this first citation he first shows how few will be converted from Israel, saying: Although the number of the sons of Israel be as the sand of the sea: "Judah and Israel 399 were as many as the sand by the sea" (1Sam 4:20), only a remnant of them will be saved, i.e., not all, not the majority, but a certain few who will be left after the pruning: "I am become as one that gleaneth in autumn the grapes of the vintage" (Mic 7:1); "At the present time there is a remnant chosen by grace" (Rom 11:5). 803. Secondly, he cites the cause of salvation: first, the efficacy of the word of the gospel, saying: A fulfilling and brief word. Note here a twofold efficacy of the evangelical word. The first is that the word is fulfilling, i.e., perfective: "The law made nothing perfect" (Heb 7:19); but the Lord says, "I have come not to abolish the law but to fulfill" (Mt 5:17), because He applied the truth to the figures of the Law, explained the moral precepts of the Law properly, removed occasions for transgressing them and even added counsels of perfection. Thus He said to the young man who had kept all the precepts of the Law: "One thing is lacking to you. If you would be perfect, go and sell what you possess and give to the poor" (Mt 19:21). For this reason He said to His disciples: "you must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Mt 5:48). The second efficacy is that the word is shortening. This is suitably joined to the first efficacy, because the more perfect a word is the more profound it is and, as a consequence, simpler and briefer. Now the word of the Gospel shortens the words of the Law, because it included all the figurative sacrifices of the Law in one true sacrifice, in which Christ offered himself as a victim for us (Eph 5:2). Furthermore, it includes all the moral precepts of the Law in the two precepts of charity: "On these two precepts depend the law and the prophets (Mt 22:40). 400 28 This sentence might also be rendered: "...because nothing of them remain to be fulfilled, which is equitable according to the dictates of natural reason." Hence he says shortening in equity, either because nothing is omitted of the multitude of figures and precepts of the law, but all are included in the brevity of the Gospel; or because nothing remains of them to be observed [but] what is equitable according to the dictates of natural reason:28 "All your commands are equitable" (Ps 118:72). 804. Secondly, (v. 28) he gives the reason for this efficacy, saying: For the Lord upon the earth, i.e., when He lives on earth as man: "Afterwards he was seen upon earth and conversed with men" (Bar 3:38), will execute his word. For the word which the Lord himself spoke in the flesh should be more perfect and powerful than the words He spoke through the prophets, as it says in Heb (1:1): "God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets, in these last days he has spoken to us through his Son." 805. Or, in another way: For the Lord, i.e., God the Father, will execute his brief word, i.e., incarnate, because the Son of God emptied Himself, taking the form of a slave. He is called brief, not because anything was subtracted from the fullness or greatness of His divinity, but because He underwent our exile and smallness. 806. Then (v. 29) he cites the texts pertaining specifically to the Apostles, saying: If the Lord of hosts had not left us, namely, in His mercy, seed, i.e., the word of the Gospel: "The seed is the word of God" (Lk 8:11); or seed, i.e., Christ; "And to your seed which is Christ" (Gal 3:16); or seed, i.e., the apostles: "That which shall stand therein shall be a holy seed" (Is 6:13), we would have fared like Sodom and been made like Gomorrah. 401 For the sin of the Jews was greater than that of the men of Sodom: "The iniquity of my people has been greater than the sin of Sodom" (Lam 4:6) and "Your sister Sodom and her daughters have not done as you and your daughters have done" (Ez 16:48). Consequently, it was an act of divine mercy that the Jews were not totally exterminated as were the Sodomites: "The mercies of the Lord that we are not consumed" (Lam 3:22). 807. Then (v. 30) he draws the conclusion from the above. First, with respect to the Gentiles; secondly, with respect to the Jews [v. 31; n. 809]. 808. In regard to the first he does two things. First, he draws his conclusion, saying: What shall we say, then, in the light of the foregoing/ I say it is this, namely, that the Gentiles have attained it, i.e., righteousness, by which they are called sons: "And such were some of you. But you were washed, you were justified" (1 Cor. 6:11). And this, indeed, from God's calling ad not from any merits, because he says: The Gentiles who did not pursue righteousness: At that time you were separated from Christ, alienated from the commonwealth of Israel" (Eph 2:12). Secondly, he explains what he calls, righteousness through faith, i.e., not that which consists in works. For the Gentiles were not converted in order to observe the justice of the Law, but to be justified through faith in Christ: "The justice of God through faith in Jesus Christ upon all who believe" (Rom 3:22). 809. Then when he says but Israel, he draws his conclusion as regards the Jews. 402 And first he concludes what he intends, saying: but Israel, i.e., the people of the Jews, who pursued the righteousness based on the law did not succeed in fulfilling the law. The law of righteousness is the law of the Spirit of life through which men are made righteous and which the Jewish people did not attain, although they pursued it by observing the shadow of this spiritual law: "The law has but a shadow of the good things to come" (Heb 10:1). Or who pursued the law of righteousness, i.e., the Law of Moses, which is the law of righteousness, if it is well understood, because it teaches righteousness. Or it is called the law of righteousness, because it does not make men truly, but only outwardly, righteous, as long as sins are avoided not from love but from fear of the punishment the Law inflicted: "Hearken to me, you who pursue that which is righteous and you that seek the Lord" (Is 51:1), "Hearken to me, you that know what is just, my people, who have my law in your heart" (Is 51:7). 810. Secondly, he states the cause, saying, Why? Because they did not observe the Law in the proper way. And this is what he says: Because they did not pursue it through faith, i.e., they sought to be made righteous not through faith in Christ but as if it were based on works. For they followed the figure and repudiated the truth: "For by the words of the law no human being shall be justified before him" (Rom 3:20). 811. Thirdly, he explains the cause assigned: "first, he presents the explanation, saying: They have stumbled over the stumbling-stone, i.e., Christ, Who is likened to a stumbling-stone; for just as a stone against which a man stumbles is not guarded against 403 because it is small, so the Jews, seeing Christ clothed with our weakness, did not guard against stumbling over Him: "His look was as it were hidden and despised. Whereupon we esteemed him not" (Is 53:3); "Before your feet stumble upon the dark mountains" (Jer 13:16), i.e., upon Christ and His apostles who are called dark mountains, because their great dignity is hidden. 812. Secondly, he cites an authority for this, saying: As it is written, namely, in Isaiah. Here the Apostle gathers together the words of Isaiah found in various places. For it says in Is (28:16): "behold, I will lay a stone in the foundations of Zion, a tried stone, a corner stone, a precious stone, founded in the foundation." From this he takes the first part of his quotation: Behold, I am laying in Zion a stone, i.e., as a foundation, by which is meant that by divine command Christ was established as the foundation of the Church: "For no other foundation can anyone lay that that which is laid, which is Jesus Christ" (1 Cor 3:11). Again it says in Is (8:14): "He shall be for a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence to the two houses of Israel." He uses this in the middle of the quotation where he says: A stone that will make men stumble, a rock that will make them fall. Here the stumbling refers to their ignorance, because it says in 1 Cor (2:8): "if they had known this, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory"; but the falling refers to their unbelief by reason of which they persecuted Christ and his apostles: "We preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews" (1Cor 1:23); "Behold, this child is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel" (Lk 2:34). The end of the quotation is taken from Is (28:16): "He that believes, let him not hasten." In place of this he says: He who believes in him will not be put to shame, namely, 404 because he will receive a reward from Him: "Ye that fear the Lord, hope in him: and your reward shall not be made void" (Si 2:8).

After showing how the Gentiles have been called to faith by the election of God's grace and also some of the Jews, i.e., a minority who did not stumble and fall [n. 735], the Apostle now discusses in more detail the fall of the Jews. In regard to this he does three things: first, he explains the cause of their fall, over which he laments; secondly, he shows that their fall is not universal, in chapter 11 [n. 859]; thirdly, that it is neither unprofitable nor irreparable [11:11; n. 878]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he shows that their fall is lamentable, considering its cause; secondly, that it is not wholly inexcusable [v. 18; n. 845]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he shows that he feels pity for the Jews; secondly, the cause of his pity [v. 2; n. 815]. 814. First, therefore, he says: I have said that the Jews have not attained the law of righteousness, because they stumbled over the stumbling-block. But I am not indignant against them; rather, I feel compassion. And, therefore, I say to you, brethren, whether you be converts from the Gentiles or from the Jews: "You are all brethren" (Mt 23:8), my heart's desire is for their salvation, namely, that they be saved, as I have been saved: "I wish that all were as I myself am" (1 Cor 7:7); " would to God that all who hear me this day might become such as I am" (Ac 26:29). In this he was conformed to God, "Who desires all men to be saved" (1 Tim 2:4). Not only his will but his prayer were directed to their salvation, but even the affection of his will, hence, he adds: and y prayer for them is that they may be saved: 407 "Far be it from me that I should sin against the Lord by ceasing to pray for you" (1 Sam 12:23); "Pray for one another that you may be saved" (Jan 5:16). This makes it clear that we should pray for unbelievers that they may be saved, because faith is a gift from God: "By grace you have been saved through faith; and this is not your own doing, it is the gift of God" (Eph 2:8). 815. Then when he says, I bear them witness, he discloses the cause of his compassion, namely, because they sinned from ignorance, not from set malice. In regard to this he does three thing. First, he cites their ignorance; secondly, he shows the area of their ignorance [v. 3; 817]; thirdly, he proves the truth of those matters about which they were ignorant [v. 5; n. 820]. 816. First, therefore, he says: I desire and pray for their salvation and I grieve for them, because I bear them witness that they have a zeal for God, i.e., out of zeal for God they persecute Christ and His members: "The hour is coming when whoever kills you will think he is offering service to God" (Jn 16:2). He is a good witness to this, because he himself had once been in a similar state of mind: "As to zeal a persecutor of the Church" (Phil 3:6), but not according to knowledge, namely, because their zeal was not guided by correct knowledge as long as they were ignorant of the truth: "Therefore, my people go into exile for want of knowledge" (Is 5:13); "If anyone does not recognize this, he will not be recognized" (I Cor 14:38). 817. Then when he says, For, being ignorant, he shows wherein they were ignorant: 408 first, he makes his statement; secondly, he explains it [v. 4; n. 819]. 818. First, therefore, he says: I am right in saying that it was not according to knowledge; for being ignorant of the righteousness that comes from God, i.e., by which God justifies them through faith: "The righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ" (Rom 3:22), and seeking to establish their own righteousness, which consists in the works of the Law, which in their opinion awaited nothing from God but depended solely on the decision of the performer. Consequently, he describes their righteousness as human and not divine, as he says above (12:2): "If Abraham was justified by works, he has something to boast about" before men, "But not before God." For they did not submit to God's righteousness, i.e., they refused to be subject to Christ through faith in whom men are made just by God: "Only in God is my soul at rest" (Ps 63:1); "That the whole world may be subject to God" (Rom 3:19); "How long do you refuse to submit to me?" (Ex 10:3). 819. Then when he says, Christ is the end of the law, he explains what he had said, namely, that they are ignorant of God's righteousness and refuse to submit to Him, while they seek to establish their own righteousness based on the Law. In regard to this it should be noted that, even as the philosophers say, the intention of any lawgiver is to make men virtuous: much more, then, the Old Law given by God to men was directed toward making men virtuous. But the Law was unable to do this of itself, because "the law made nothing perfect" (Heb 7:19); rather, it ordained men to Christ Whom it promised and prefigured: 409 "The law was our custodian until Christ came, that we might justified by faith" (Gal 3:24). And that is what he says, namely, that the end of the law is Christ, to whom the whole Law is ordained: "I have seen the end of all perfection" (Ps 119:96); the end that through Christ men may attain the righteousness the Law intended: "For God has done what the law, weakened by the flesh, could not do: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, he condemned sin in the flesh in order that the just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us" (Rom 8:3-4). And this to everyone that has faith, because he justified his own by faith: "To all who believed in his name he gave power to become children of God" (Jn 1:12). 820. Then when he says, Moses writes, he proves the truth of those things about which the Jew were ignorant, namely, that God's righteousness is more perfect than that of the Law; and this he shows on the authority of Moses, the lawgiver of the Old Law. First therefore he shows by his words the condition of legal justice; Second, he shows the condition of the justice of faith [n. 823]. 821. First, therefore, he says: I have correctly distinguished human righteousness from God's righteousness, for Moses writes that the man who practices the righteousness which is based on the law shall live by it, where my text has: "Keep my laws and judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them" and (Ez 20:13): "They cast away my judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them," namely, because by observing the Law a man obtained the advantage of not being killed as a transgressor of the Law: "A man who has violated the law of Moses dies without mercy" (Heb 10:28); "Everyone who curses his father or his mother shall be put to death" (Lev 20:9), and so on for the other commandments. 410 822. We can also say that by observing the Law a man was regulated in the present life, for the Law promised temporal goods and commanded things "which were bodily regulations imposed until a time of reformation" (Heb 9:10). But all this seems contrary to what the Lord answered the person asking Him: "What good deed must I do to have eternal life?" (Mt 19:16); for He answered: "If you would enter life, keep the commandments" (Mt 19:17). Hence, a Gloss on Romans (5:20): "Law came in," says that righteousness based on the Law conferred not only temporal benefits but also eternal life. But Christ's words must be understood according to the spiritual sense of the Law, a sense which refers to faith in Him. But Paul's words refer to the inward sense of the Law according to which the Law makes no mention of eternal life. 823. Then when he says, But the righteousness based on faith, he quotes Moses on righteousness based on faith. First, Moses shows the certitude of faith which ought to be in man's heart; secondly, the effect of faith [v. 8; n. 826]. 824. First, therefore, he says: Moses speaks not only of the righteousness based on the Law, but also of that based on faith. But the righteousness based on faith says, i.e., speaks thus in a man's heart: "Who ascends into heaven and descends?" (Pr 30:4). Who will ascend into heaven? For to hold that this is impossible is to bring Christ down from heaven, i.e., to assert that Christ is not in heaven, which is against what it says in Jn (3:13): "No one has ascended into heaven but the Son of man who descended from heaven. 411 Or again do not say, "Who will descend into the abyss? i.e., into hell, as though considering this impossible; for to deny this is to bring Christ up from the dead, i.e., to deny that Christ died. For after dying He descended into the abyss: "I will penetrate to all the lower parts of the earth" (Sir 24:41). 825. This explanation prevents any doubt about two articles of Christian faith, namely Christ's ascension and his death and descent into hell, the first of which pertains to his supreme exaltation and the second to his lowest humiliations. But it can be explained in another way as giving us certainty about tow other articles: first, the incarnation, in which He descended from heaven to earth. Then the sense is: Do not say in your heart: "Who will ascend into heaven to bring Christ down?" As if to say: This was not necessary, because He came down of His own power. Secondly, of the resurrection, when he continues: Or do not say: "Who will descend into the abyss to bring Christ up from the dead?" as if to say: He descended there, so that he might call Christ thence, as is said in the person of the fool in Wis 2(:1), "No man has been known to return from hell." This explanation accords with the words of Moses in Dt (30:11): "This commandment that I command you this day is not above you, nor far off from you. Nor is it in heaven, that you should say: 'Which of us can go up to heaven to bring it to us?'" Nor is it unseemly, if the Apostle attributes to Christ what Moses said of the commandments of the Law; because Christ is the Word of God in which are all God's commandments. Therefore, one must interpret what he is saying, namely, Who will ascend into heaven to bring Christ down? as if he were saying: "Who can ascend into heaven to bring God's word to us?" and the same must be said in the other which follows. 412 826. Then when he says, But what does the Scripture say, he shows the fruit of faith on the same authority: first, he quotes the authority; secondly, he explains [v. 8b; n. 829]; thirdly, he proves that the explanation is fitting [v. 9; n. 830]. 827. First, therefore he says: But what does the Scripture say? It says this: The word is near you, on your lips and in your heart. For this is what follows after the aforementioned words in Deuteronomy (30:14): The word is very near you, in your mouth and in your heart. As if to say: do not suppose that you are lacking the word of justifying faith, just because Christ is in heaven according to His divine nature and descended into hell after the death of His human nature. For in descending from heaven and rising from the dead, He impressed the word of faith on your lips and in your heart. 828. Hence the statement that the word is near you can be referred to the fact that we have obtained God's word through Christ's birth and resurrection: "It was declared at first by the Lord" (Heb 2:3); "Behold, I have given my words in your mouth" (Jer 1:9). Or, according to the Gloss, the word near should be understood with reference to usefulness, as we say something is "near" us when it is expedient or useful to us. For our heart is cleansed by the word of God: "Now you are clean because of the word which I have spoken to you" (John 15:3). Or it can be referred to the fact that the words of faith, even though they are above reason: "I have given my words in your mouth" (Jer 1:9). "Many things are shown to thee 413 above the understanding of men" (Sir 3:25) but they are not contrary to reason, because truth cannot be contrary to truth. "Thy decrees are very sure" (Ps. 93:5). 829. Then when he says, This is the word, he explains the above words. First, he shows what that word is about which Moses speaks, saying, This is the word of faith which we preach. "Preach the word" (2 Tim 4:2); "He that has my word, let him speak my word with truth" (Jer 23:28). Secondly, he explains how this word is on the lips by confession and in the heart by faith. And this is what he says" confess with your lips that Jesus Christ is Lord, i.e., recognize Him as Lord by submitting your will to Him; and believe in your heart with complete faith which works through love, that God raised him from the dead, because, as it says in 2 Cor (13:4): "He rose by the power of God," which is common to Him and to the Father, you will be saved: "Israel is saved in the Lord with an eternal salvation" (Is 45:17). When he says, Jesus is Lord, he is referring to the mystery of the incarnation; when he says, Christ, the reference is to the resurrection.

After explaining that confession on the lips and faith in the heart work salvation, the Apostle proves what he had said, setting out an example of this in two points which Moses seems to mention [n. 826], here he proves what he had said in the universal. And concerning this he does three things. First, he shows that by faith and confession of faith man obtains salvation; secondly, he lays down the order of salvation [v. 14; n. 835]; thirdly, he draws the conclusion [v. 17; n. 844]. 831. In regard to the first he does three things [n. 833, 834]. First, he presents his proposition, saying: I am correct in saying that if you confess with your lips and believe in your heart, you will be saved; for man believes with his heart and so is justified, i.e. he believes in order that he may obtain righteousness through faith: "Since we are justified through faith" (Rom 5:1). 415 Notice that he says man believes with his heart, i.e., his will, because man cannot believe, unless he wills. For the intellect of the believer, unlike that of the philosopher, does not assent to the truth as though compelled by force of reason; rather, he is moved to assent by the will, therefore, knowing does not pertain to man's righteousness, which is in the will, but to the belief: "Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him as justice" (Gen 15:6). But after he has been justified by faith, it is required that his faith work through love, in order to achieve salvation. Hence, he adds: he confesses with his lips unto salvation, i.e., to reach eternal salvation. 832. Three kinds of confession are necessary for salvation. First, the confession of one's own iniquity: "I said: 'I will confess my transgressions to the Lord'" (Ps 32:5), which is the confession of the repentant. The second is that by which a man confesses the goodness of God mercifully bestowing His benefits: "Sing to the Lord a new song, for he has done marvelous things: (Ps 98:11) and this is the confession of one giving thanks. The third is the confession of divine truth: "Every one who confesses me before men, I will also confess before my Father who is in heaven" (Mt 10:32) and this is the confession of the believer, about which the Apostle is now speaking. This confession is necessary for salvation, depending on circumstances of place and time, namely when one's faith is demanded, namely, by a persecutor of the faith, as when the faith is endangered by an alien [belief]. Prelates especially ought to preach the faith to their subjects. Therefore, the baptized are anointed on the forehead with chrism in the form of a cross, so that they will not be ashamed to confess Christ crucified: "I am not 416 ashamed of the gospel" (Rom 1:16). What is said about confessing the faith applies to all virtuous acts necessary for salvation according to circumstances of time and place. for the precepts commanding the performance of these acts oblige us always but not for every moment of the day. 833. Secondly, he proves his proposition with an authority when he says: For the Scripture, namely (Is 28:16) says: No one who believes in him with living faith will be put to shame, i.e., miss salvation: "Ye that fear the Lord, believe him: and your reward shall not be made void" (Sir 2:8). But our text has: "He who believes will not be in haste," as was said above. 834. Thirdly, when he says, there is no distinction, he shows that this applies to all men. First, he asserts that in this matter there is no distinction between Jew and Greek: "Here there cannot be Greek and Jew circumcised and uncircumcised" (Col 3:11). Secondly, he proves this with two reasons. The first is based on the fact that the same lord is lord of all; consequently, he provides for the salvation of all. The second is based on the fact that He bestows his riches upon all who call on him. For if His riches were not sufficient to supply for all, one might suppose that He could not provide for all believer. However, the riches of His goodness and mercy are inexhaustible "Or do you presume upon the riches of his goodness?" (Rom 2:4); "God, who is rich in mercy" (Eph 2:4). Thirdly, he proves the same thing on the authority of Joel (2:32): Everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved. This is done by calling on Him through love and devout worship: "When he calls on me, I will answer him" (Ps 91:15). 417 835. Then when he says, But how are men to call upon him, he presents the order in which one is called to salvation, which is from faith. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that the later steps in this order cannot occur without the earlier; secondly, he shows that after the earlier steps have been taken, the later do not necessarily follow [v. 16; n. 842]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents the order of things required for salvation; secondly, he supports what he had supposed [v. 15b; n. 839]. 836. First, therefore, he presents five things in order, beginning with the step which calls upon God. Therefore, he says: How are they to call upon him in whom they have not believed? As if to say: It is certainly true that unless faith is present, one cannot call on God to save him. This calling upon God pertains to confession with the lips, which proceed from faith in the heart: "We believed, and so we spoke" (1 Cor 4:13). 837. Secondly, he moves from faith to hearing when he adds: and how are they to believe in him of whom they have never heard? For one is said to believe things which are said to him by others and which he does not see: "It is no longer because of your words that we believe, for we have heard for ourselves and we know that this is indeed the Savior of the world" (Jn 4:42). But hearing is twofold: one is internal, by which one hears form God revealing: "Let me hear what God the Lord will speak" (Ps 85:8); the other is that by which 418 someone hears another man speaking in his presence: "While Peter was still saying this, the Holy Spirit fell on all who heard the word" (Ac 10:44). The first kind of hearing pertains to the grace of prophecy, which is given to certain definite persons, but not to all, as it says in 1 Cor (12:4): "There are varieties of gifts." But because he is now speaking of something that can pertain to all without distinction, it is the second kind of hearing that he has in mind. That is why he adds: and how are they to hear without a preacher? For outward hearing in the listener cannot occur without an action of the speaker. This is why the Lord commanded the disciples: "Go into the whole world and preach the gospel to every creature" (Mt 28:19). But preachers do not possess the truths of faith of themselves but from God: "What I have heard from the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel, I announce to you" (Is 21:10); "For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you" (1 Cor 11:23). Therefore, he adds: and how can men preach unless they are sent? As if to say: worthily: "I did not send the prophets, yet they ran" (Jer 23:21). 838. But some are sent by the Lord in two ways. In one way, immediately by God Himself through internal inspiration: "And now the Lord God has sent me and his Spirit" (Jer 48:16). Sometimes the sign of this sending is the authority of Holy Scripture; hence, when John the Baptist was asked who he was, he invoked the authority of a prophet: "I am the voice of one crying in the wilderness, "Make straight the way of the Lord, as the prophet Isaiah said'" (Jn 1:23). Sometimes it is the truth of what is announced. Hence, in contrast to this it says in Dt (18:22): "When a prophet speaks in the name of the Lord, if the words does not come to pass of come true, 419 that is a word which the Lord has not spoken." Sometimes the sign of this sending is the working of a miracle. Hence it says in Ex (4:1) that when Moses said to the Lord: "They will not believe me or listen to my voice," the Lord gave him power to perform signs. Nevertheless, the last two are not sufficient proof of a divine mission, especially when someone says something contrary to the faith. For it says in Dt (13:1): "If a prophet arises among you and gives you a sign or a wonder, and the sign or wonder comes to pass, and if he says, "Let us go after other gods," you shall not listen to the words of that prophet." Secondly, some are sent by God mediately on the authority of prelates, who take God's place: "With him we are sending the brother who is famous among all the churches for his preaching of the gospel" (2 Cor 8:18). 839. Then when he says, As it is written, he quotes an authority to prove what he had said about the need for preachers to be sent. He says As it is written, namely, in Is (52:7): how beautiful are the feet of those who preach the good news! Here our text has How beautiful on the mountain are the feet of those who preach and announce peace, announcing good. And something similar is found in Nahum (1:15): "Behold on the mountains the feet of those who evangelize and announce peace." 840. In these words, first, the procedure of the preachers in commended when he says, how beautiful are the feet. This can be interpreted in two ways: in one way, so that by feet is understood their procedure, namely, because they proceed according to due order, not usurping the office of preachers: "How graceful are your feet in sandals, O queenly maiden!" ( Song 7:1). 420 In another way, by feet are understood their affections which are right, as long as they announce God's word not with the intention of praise or gain but for the salvation of men and the glory of God: "Their feet were straight" (Ez 1:7). 841. Secondly, he touches on the preacher's subject matter, which is twofold. For they preach things useful for the present life. These he designates when he says, who preach peace, which is of three kinds. First, they announce the peace which Christ made between men and God: "God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself, entrusting to us the word of reconciliation" (2 Cor 5:19). Secondly, he announces peace to be had with all men: "If possible, so far as it depends upon you, live peaceably with all" (Rom 12:18). Thirdly, they announce the way a man can have peace within himself: "Much peace to them that love your law" (Ps 119:165). Under these three are contained everything useful in this life for salvation with respect to God, to ones neighbor and oneself. They also preach the things we hope to have in the other life. In regard to these he says, preaching good things: "He will set him over all his goods" (Lk 12:44). 842. Then when he says, But they have not all heeded, he shows that the later steps do not always follow. For although one cannot believe, unless he hears the word of the preacher, nevertheless, not everyone who hears believes; and this is what he says: But they have not all heeded the gospel: "Not all have faith" (2 Th 3:2). He says this to show that the outwardly spoken word of the preacher is not sufficient to cause faith, unless a man's heart is attracted inwardly by the power of God 421 29 Thomas comments in this paragraph on the Latin phrase auditui nostro, which could be translated in both of the ways he mentions. The ambiguity is difficult to reproduce in translation. speaking: "Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me" (Jn 6:45). Consequently, if men believe, it should not be attributed to the industry of the preacher. It also shows that not all unbelievers are excused from sin, but those who do not hear: "If I had not come and spoken to them they would have no sin, but now they have no excuse for their sin" (Jn 15:22). And this is more consonant with what the Apostle will say further on. 843. Secondly, he cites his authority for this, when he says: for Isaiah says, "Lord, who has believed what he had heard from us?" As if to say: A few; "Thou art among unbelievers and destroyers" (Ez 2:6); "For I have become as one who gleans in autumn the grapes of the vintage" (Mic 7:1). Isaiah said this because he foresaw the future unbelief of the Jews: "With a great spirit he saw the last things" (Sir 48:27). And he says what he had heard from us, referring either to what they heard from God, as is said in Obadiah 5(:1), "We have heard a heard thing from the Lord, and sent messengers to the nations"; or referring to what men heard from the apostles: "They heard your words, and they did not do them" (Ez 33:32).29 844. Then when he says, faith comes from hearing, he draws his conclusion from the foregoing, saying: Therefore, since they do not believe unless they hear, faith comes from hearing: "As soon as they heard of me they obeyed me" (Ps 18:44). But if faith comes from hearing, how can it be a divinely infused virtue? The answer is that two things are required for faith: one is the inclining of the heart to believe; and this does not come from hearing, but from the gift of grace; the other is a decision about what to believe and comes from hearing. Thus, Cornelius whose heart 422 was inclined toward belief, needed Peter to be sent to him to point out what he should believe. From the fact that they do not hear without a preacher who must be sent (v. 14), he concludes that what is heard by believers is the word of the preacher, which is the word of Christ; either because it is about Christ: "We preach Christ" (1 Cor 1:23), or because they have been sent by Christ: "For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you" (1 Cor 11:23).

After showing that the fall of the Jews is pitiable, because they sinned from ignorance [n. 813], here the Apostle shows that their fall is not entirely excusable; because their ignorance was not invincible or rooted in necessity, but somehow voluntary. 423 He shows this in two ways. First, because they heard the teaching of the apostles; secondly, from what they knew from the teachings of the Law and of the prophets [v. 19; n. 850]. 846. In regard to the first he does two things. First, he asks a question, saying: We have said that faith comes from hearing and that men cannot believe a person whom they have not heard. But I ask, have they not heard? so as to be totally excused for their unbelief, according to what is said in Jn (15:22): "If I had not come and spoken to them, they would not have sin." 847. Secondly, he answers the question by interjecting the authority of Ps (19:4): Their voice has gone out to all the earth; i.e., the voice of the apostles whose fame has reached every land, both of Jews and of Gentiles: "Destruction and death have said" with our ears we have heard the fame thereof" (Jb 28:22), namely, the wisdom preached by the apostles. For the Lord had commanded them: "Go into the whole world and preach the gospel to every creature" (Mt 28:19). And their words, i.e., their distinctive message, has gone out to the ends of the world: "From the ends of the earth we have heard praises" (Is 24:!6),; "I have given thee to be the light of the Gentiles, to be my salvation even to the farthest part of the earth" (Is 49:6). 848. It should be noted that, according to Augustine, these words had not yet been fulfilled when the Apostle spoke them, but he foresaw that they would be fulfilled. So he uses the past for the future, because divine pr-ordination is certain of fulfillment; For David, whose words he employed, also used the past for the future. Augustine said this, 424 because even in his own day there were certain parts of Africa where the faith of Christ had not been preached. Chrysostom, on the other hand, says that what is said here had been fulfilled in the time of the apostles. He draws this from Mt 24(:14), "And this gospel must be preached in the whole world, and then will come the consummation," i.e., the destruction of Jerusalem. Each is correct in his own way. For in the days of the apostles some report about their preaching had reached all nations, even to the ends of the world, at least through their disciples and even through the apostles themselves. For Matthew preached in Ethiopia, Thomas in India, Peter and Paul in the west. And this is what Chrysostom means. However, during the times of the apostles it had not be fulfilled in such a way that the Church had been built up in all nations, but it would be fulfilled before the end of the world, as Augustine says. Yet Chrysostom's explanation is more in keeping with the Apostle's intention that is Augustine's. For the basic excuse of their unbelief is not undercut by the fact that these unbelievers would hear something in the future. However, this does not imply that a report of the apostles' preaching had reached every individual, although it had reached all nations. 849. Does this mean that those it has not reached, for example if they were raised in the jungle, have an excuse for their sin of unbelief? The answer is that according to the Lord's statement (Jn 15:22) those who have not heard the Lord speaking either in person or through his disciples are excused from the sin of unbelief. However, they will not obtain God's blessing, namely, removal of original 425 sin or any sin added by leading an evil life; for these, they are deservedly condemned. But if any of them did what was in his power, the Lord would provide for him according to his mercy by sending a preacher of the faith as he sent Peter to Cornelius and Paul into Macedonia. Nevertheless, the fact that they do what is in their power, namely, by turning to God, proceeds from God's moving their hearts to the good: "Turn us to thee, O Lord, that we may be turned" (Lam 5:19). 850. Then when he says, Again I ask, did not Israel understand? he shows that they were inexcusable, because of the knowledge they had from the Law and the prophets. First, he raises the question, saying: But I ask, did Israel, i.e., the Jewish people, not know the things which pertain to the mystery of Christ and to the calling of the Gentiles and the fall of the Jews? They knew fully: "Instructed by the law" (Rom 2:18); "He has not dealt thus with another nation" (Ps 147:20); "We are happy, O Israel, because the things that are pleasing to God are made known to us" (Bar 4:4). Secondly, he says, First Moses says, he answers the question and shows that they did know: first, through the teaching of the Law, saying: First Moses, who is the lawgiver. He says, first, because Moses was the chief teacher of the Jews: "There has not risen a prophet since in Israel like Moses" (Dr 34:12) or because he was the first among others to say this. I will make you jealous of those who are not a nation, with a foolish nation I will make you angry. Here our text has this (Dt 32:21): "I will provoke them by that which is not a people and by a foolish nation I will anger them." 851. Two differences should be noted here [n. 852]. 426 30 Aquinas’s interpretation here moves from non gens ("not a nation") to non gentiliter vivens ("not living in a Gentile manner"). The first in regard to Gentiles, since he says, not a nation, as though unworthy to be called a nation, because the Gentiles were not united in the worship of one god: "There are two nations which my soul abhors, and the third is no nation, which I hate" (Si 50:27). But he called the same nation a foolish nation. If in some sense it could be called a nation, inasmuch it is united and governed by human law, it is, nevertheless, called foolish, as though lacking true wisdom, which consists in the knowledge and worship of God: "You must no longer live as the Gentiles do, in the futility of their minds; they are darkened in their minds, alienated from the life of God" (Eph 4:17). And in this way it refers to the Gentiles, namely in their state before conversion. These two things can also be applied to the Gentiles after conversion. They are called not a nation, i.e., not living in a gentile manner,30 as the Apostle says in the same place (Eph 4:17). And converted Gentiles are also called foolish by those who do not believe: "If anyone among you seems to be wise in this world, let him become foolish that he may be wise" (1Cor 3:18). 852. The second difference consists in the fact that he first mentions the jealous, i.e. the envy with which the Jews envied the converted Gentiles: "They make much of you, but for no good purpose" (Gal 4:17); secondly, he mentions the anger with which they were irked against them: "The wicked man makes plots against the just man, and gnashes his teeth at him" (Ps 37:12). These two are fittingly joined, because from envy springs anger: "Anger kills the foolish, and envy slays the little one" (Jb 5:2). 427 But God is said to produce jealousy and stir to anger, not by causing the malice in them but by withdrawing grace, or rather by effecting the conversion of the Gentiles from which the Jews take occasion for jealousy and anger. 853. Secondly, he shows that they knew through the teaching of the prophets, and first he quotes Isaiah as foretelling the conversion of the Gentiles, saying: Then Isaiah is so bold as to say, i.e., Isaiah boldly declares the truth, although this would put him in danger of death: "He goes forth boldly to meet armed men" (Job 39:21). Isaiah says: I have been found by those who did not seek me; I have shown myself plainly to those who did not ask for me; here our text has "They have sought me that before asked not for me, they have found me that sought me not" (Is 65:1). 854. He mentions first the conversion of the Gentiles, saying I have been found by those who did not seek me. This shows that the conversion of the Gentiles was beyond their merits and intention: "Christ became a servant in order that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy" (Rom 15:9). About this finding Mt (13:44) says: "The kingdom of heaven is like a treasure in a field, which a man found..." Secondly, he shows the cause and manner of their conversion. The cause, indeed, because it was not by chance that they found what they were not seeking but by the grace of Him Who willed to appear to them. This is indicated, when he says: He showed himself; "The grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all men" (*** 2:11). The manner was that Christ did not appear to the Gentiles in the enigmas and figures of the Law but in plain truth; hence he says: I have shown myself plainly to them, 428 i.e., the Gentiles, who did not ask for me, i.e., who did not ask for my doctrine: "They keep on praying to a god that cannot save" (Is 45:20). 855. Then he shows that Isaiah foretold the unbelief of the Jews, saying: But of Israel, i.e., against Israel, he says, All day long I have held out my hands to a disobedient and contrary people. Here our text has this: "I have spread forth my hands all the day to an unbelieving people, who walk in a way that is not good after their own thoughts. A people that continually provoke me to anger" (Is 65:2-3a). 856. That he says, I have held out my hands, can be understood of Christ's hands held out on the cross, which are said to have been held out all day long, i.e., the principal part of a whole day, namely, from the sixth hour until evening. And although during that time the sun was darkened, the rocks rent, and the graves opened, the Jews persisted in their unbelief, blaspheming him, as it says in Mt 28(:39). Hence he adds a people who do not believe, but contradict me: "Consider him who endured such contradiction against himself from sinners" (Heb 12:3). 857. In another way, it can be taken as referring to God stretching out his hands to do miracles: "When you stretch our your hand to cures and signs and prodigies to be worked through the holy name of your son Jesus." The meaning then would be: All the day, i.e., through the whole time of my preaching, I have stretched out my hands, by working miracles, to a people who do not believe, even when they see miracles: "If I had not done the works which no other man has done, they would not have sin" (John 15:24); but contradict me, i.e., slander my miracles, in accord with Mt 12(:24), "By Beelzebub, the prince of demons, he casts out demons"; "Your people are like those who contradict a priest" (Hos 4:4). 429 858. Thirdly, it can be understood of God stretching out his hands to give benefits to his people, in accord with Pr 1:24: "I stretched out my hands, and there was none who paid attention." The meaning would then be: All the day, i.e., through the whole time of the Law and the prophets, I stretched out my hands to give benefits to a people who do not believe but contradict me: "Always you have been rebellious against the Lord" (Dt 31:27).

After showing that the fall of the Jews is deplorable, though not entirely excusable [n. 813], the Apostle now shows that it is not universal. First, he raises a question; secondly, he answer it [v. 1b; n. 861]; thirdly, he draws a conclusion [v. 7; n. 872]. 860. First, therefore, he says: I ask then, has God rejected his people? i.e., the Jews, because he calls them unbelieving and contrary. Even the Psalmist asks: "O God, why dost thou cast us for ever?" (Ps 74:1; "The Lord has scorned his altar" (Lam 2:7). 861. Then when he says, By no means, he answers the question and shows that God has not totally rejected the Jewish people. And this is what he says: By no means has the Jewish people been rejected in its entirety. He proves this, first of all, with respect to himself, saying: I myself, living in the faith of Christ, am an Israelite by race: "are they Israelites? So am I" (2 Cor 11:22). And because there were among the people of Israel some proselytes not descended in the flesh from the patriarchs, he says that this is not so of him, adding: a descendant of Abraham: "Are they descendants of Abraham? So am I" (2 Cor 11:23). Furthermore, among the Jewish people the tribes were distinguished according to the sons of Jacob, some of whom were sons of slaves and some of wives. Joseph and Benjamin were sons of Rachel, Jacob's fondest wife. Hence he shows his eminence among the Jewish people, saying: a member of the tribe of Benjamin: "Of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin" (Phil 3:5). Hence, some apply to Paul what is in Gen (49:27): "Benjamin is a ravenous wolf, in the morning devouring the prey, and at evening dividing the spoil." 432 862. Secondly, when he says: God has not rejected, he shows that his people has not been rejected by God in regard to many chosen ones. First, he states is proposition; secondly, he recalls a similar situation [v. 2b; n. 864]; thirdly, he adapts it [v. 5; n. 871]. 863. First, therefore, he says: Not only have I not been rejected, but God has not rejected his people whom he foreknew, i.e., the predestined ones: "For the Lord will not reject his people" (Ps 94:14). The Apostle applies this to the predestined. 864. Then when he says, Do you not know, he recalls a similar situation which occurred during the time of Elijah, when all the people seemed to have turned from the worship of the one God. First, he presents Elijah's plea; secondly, the Lord's reply [v. 4; n. 870]. 865. First, therefore, he says: Do you not know what the Scripture says of Elijah, i.e., in the book written about Elijah? For the entire Book of Kings was written mainly to make known the saying and deeds of the Prophets. That is why it is counted among the prophetic books, as Jerome says. How he pleads with God against Israel. 866. The word of Samuel seems to be contrary to this when he says: "Far from me be this sin against the Lord, that I should cease to pray for you" (1 Sam 12:23). Much less, then, should one intervene against the people. But it should be noted that prophets intervene against the people in three ways: in one way by conforming their wills to the divine will revealed to them, as it says in Ps (58:10): "The righteous will rejoice when he sees the vengeance." In another way by 433 intervening against the kingdom of sin, in order that men's sins but not men be destroyed. In a third way that the intervention or prayer be construed as a denunciation, as in Jer (17:18): "Let them that persecute me be confounded," i.e., they will be confounded. 867. In this intervention Isaiah alleges two things against them. First, the impiety they committed against the worship of god. First, by persecuting His ministers, to which he refers when he says: Lord, they have killed thy prophets: "Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute?" (Ac 7:52); "Has it not been told my lord what I did when Jezebel killed the prophets of the Lord" (1 Kings 18:13). Secondly, impiety against God's holy places, as it says in Ps (74:7): "They set they sanctuary on fire." In regard to this he says: They have demolished thy altars. 868. Here it should be noted what the Lord commanded, saying: "You shall seek the place which the Lord your God will choose out of all your tribes to put his name and make hi habitation there; thither you shall go, and thither you shall bring your burnt offerings and sacrifices" (Dt 12:5-6). However, before the temples was built, the people were allowed to build altars in various places for divine worship; but because this became illegal after the temple had been built, the pious king Hezekiah destroyed all such altars. And that is what it says in 2 Kgs (18:220 "Is it not he whose high places and altars Hezekiah has removed, saying to Judah and to Jerusalem, 'You shall worship before this altar in Jerusalem'?" Therefore, what Hezekiah did in a spirit of piety, Achab and Jezebel did in a spirit of impiety in their desire to root out the worship of God entirely. 869. Thirdly [cf. n. 867], he alleges against them the impiety they intended to do, saying: and I alone am left, namely, to worship the one God, because the rest did not show very clearly that they were God's worshippers: and they seek my life. For Jezebel 434 had sent word to Elijah, saying: "so may the gods do to me, if I do not make your life as the life of one of them (1Kgs 19:2), namely of the prophets of Baal whom Elijah had killed. 870. Then he gives the divine reply, saying: But what is God's reply to him, i.e., to Elijah. It is this: I have kept for myself, i.e., for my worship by not permitting them to fall into sin, seven thousand men (this definite number is put in place of the uncertain number, because seen and thousand are perfect numbers), who have not bowed the knee to Baal, i.e. who have not abandoned the worship of God: "All who call on my name, whom I created for my glory" (Is 43:17). 871. Then when he says, So, too, at the present time, he adapts all this to the present situation. First, he sets out the adaptation, saying: So, too, at the present time, in which a multitude of people seems to have gone astray, there is a remnant chosen by grace, saved according to the choice of God's grace: "You have not chosen me, but I have chosen you" (Jn 15:16). Secondly, he draws the conclusion from this: But if it is by grace that they have been saved, it is no longer on the basis of works: "He saved us, not because of deeds done by us in righteousness, but in virtue of his own mercy" (*** 3:5). Thirdly, that this conclusion follows from the premises is shown when he says: Otherwise, i.e., if grace is in virtue of works, grace would no loner be grace, for it is given gratis: "The free gift of righteousness through his grace" (Rom 5:17). 872. Then when he says, What then, he draws the conclusion he intended. 435 And first he sets it out, saying What then shall we say follows from what has been said? This, namely, that Israel, as far as the greater part of its people was concerned, failed to obtain what it sought, namely, righteousness. This is the way one must interpret what was said above (9:31): "But Israel whop pursued the righteousness based on the law did not attain it." Nevertheless, the elect of the Jews obtained it: "He chose us in him, that we should be holy" (Eph 1:4). But the rest were hardened because of their malice: "Their own malice blinded them" (Wis 1:22) 873. Then when he says, As it is written, he clarifies the first part of the conclusion: first, on the authority of Isaiah; secondly, of David [v. 9; n. 876]. 874. In regard to the first it should be noted that the Apostle bases himself on two passages from Isaiah. For it says in Is (29:10): "The Lord has poured out upon you a spirit of deep sleep." In regard to this he says: God gave them a spirit of compunction, which has to do with a perversity of emotion. For compunction implies a puncturing of the heart or sorrow. Hence there is good compunction by which ones grieves over his own sins, as it says in Ps 60(:3), "You have made us drunk with the wine of compunction." There is also evil compunction, i.e., the compunction of envy, by which one grieves over the goods of another. Therefore God gave them this spirit of compunction, i.e., envy, not by instilling malice but by withdrawing grace, as was said above (10:19): "I will make you jealous of those who are not a nation." 436 875. Likewise it says in Is (6:10): "Male the heart of this people fat, and their eyes heavy, and shut their eyes; lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears." In this vein he designates their weakened power of knowing, when he adds: eyes that should not see the miracles which Christ performed in their presence, and ears that should not hear fruitfully the teachings of Christ and the apostle: "He sees many things but does not observe then, his ears are open, but he does not hear" (Is 42:20). To this the Apostle adds on his own: down to this very day, because they will see and hear at the end of the world, when the hearts of the children will be converted to the hearts of their fathers, as it says in Mal (4:5). 876. Then when hey says, And David says, he presents the authority of David on the same point. First, he touches on the things which occasioned the fall of the Jews, saying" Let their table, i.e. the malice with which sinners are nourished: "Though wickedness is sweet in his mouth, though he hides it under his tongue" (Jb 20:12). This table is before them, when they sin from malice aforethought and it becomes a snare, i.e., a temptation to sin: "He who combs out of the pit shall be caught in the snare: (Is 24:18) and a trap, when they succumb to the pleasure of the temptation: "They shall be trapped and taken" (Is 8:15) and a pitfall, when they fall from one sin into another: "Much peace to those who love your law, and it is not a pitfall to them" (Ps 119:165) and a retribution for them, namely, when they will be punished for their sins. Or because they very fact that God permits them so to fall is itself a retribution for their sins: "Render to the proud their deserts" (Ps 94:2). 437 Or the table is the Sacred Scripture put before the Jews: "She has set forth her table" (Pr 9:2). It becomes a snare, when something ambiguous occurs; a trap, when it is not correctly understood, a pitfall, when it falls into obstinate error; and a retribution , as explained above. 877. Secondly, he mentions the weakening of their power to understand when he says: let their eyes be darkened so that they cannot see, which is said more as a prediction then as a desire; and their backs, i.e., free choice, which carries something for good or for evil, bend forever, i.e., bend from eternal things to temporal things, from the path of justice to iniquity: "Bow down, that we may pass over" (Is 51:23).

After showing that the fall of the Jews is not universal [n. 859], the Apostle now begins to show that their fall was neither useless nor irreparable. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that the fall of the Jews is useful and reparable; secondly, he disputes the Gentiles' boasting against the Jews [v. 17; n. 894]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he asks a question; secondly, he answers it [v. 11b; n. 880]. 879. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated and proved that except for the chosen, the rest of the Jews have been blinded. So the question arises: Have they stumbled so as to fall? This can be interpreted in two ways: the first way is this: Has God permitted them to stumble only so as to fall, i.e., not for any benefit that might follow but merely willing their fall? This, of course, would be contrary to God's goodness which, as Augustine says, is so great that it would not permit any evil to occur except for some good, which He draws out of the evil. Hence it says in Jb (34:24): "He shall break in pieces many and innumerable, and shall make others to stand in their stead"; and in Rev (3:11): "Hold fast what you have, so that no one may seize your crown,": namely, because God permits some to fall in order that their fall be the occasion of salvation for others. Another interpretation is this: Have they stumbled so as to fall? i.e., to remain fallen forever: "will he not rise again from where he lies?" (Ps 41:8). 880. Then when he says, Let it not be! he answers the question: first, according to the second interpretation that it is reparable; 439 second, he resolves the question according to the second interpretation, showing that the Jews’ situation is reparable [883]. 881. First, therefore, he says: By no means was their fall useless; rather, by their, namely, the Jews', trespass, salvation has come to the Gentiles. Hence the Lord Himself says: "Salvation is from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). This can be understood in three ways. In the first way, that by their trespass, which they committed in killing Christ, the salvation of the Gentiles was obtained through the redemption of Christ's blood: "you know that you were ransomed not with perishable things, such as silver or gold, but with the precious blood of the Lamb" (1 Pt 1:18). In the second way, it can be understood of the trespass by which they rejected the teaching of the apostles, with the result that the apostles preached to the Gentiles, as it says in Ac (13:46): "It was necessary that the word of God should be spoken first to you. Since you thrust it from you, we turn to the Gentiles." In a third way it can be understood as meaning that on account of their impenitence they have been scattered among all the nations. As a result Christ and the Church had from the books of the Jews testimony to the Christian faith helpful in converting the Gentiles, who might have suspected that the prophecies concerning the testimony of the Hews; hence it says in Ps 59 (v.10): "Let me look in triumph on my enemies," i.e., the Jews. "Slay them not, lest my people forget, make them totter by thy power." 882. There follows so that they may be jealous of them. 440 And because he does not say who or whom, and since there are two kinds of jealousy, namely that of indignation and that of imitation, this phrase can be explained in four ways. The first way is this. The Gentiles are jealous of them, namely the Jews, such that they imitate them in the worship of the one God: "You were at one time without Christ, alien to the way of life of Israel," and later he adds, "But now you, who were once far off, have been drawn near in the blood of Christ" (Eph 2:12); "You have become imitators of the Church of God" (1Th 2:14), which was in Judea. Or it can be interpreted this way. The Gentiles are jealous of the Jews, i.e., they are indignant against them on account of their unbelief: "I beheld the transgressors and I pined away, because they do not keep your words" (Ps 118:158). Thirdly, it can be understood in this way. The Jews are jealous, i.e., imitate the Gentiles when everywhere, and now some of them particularly, are converted to the faith, imitating the faith of the Gentiles; and in the end all Israel will be saved when the fullness of the Gentiles have entered. Thus will be fulfilled what is said in Dt 28(:44), "He will be the head and you will be the tail." Fourthly, it can be interpreted this way. The Jews are jealous of the Gentiles, i.e., are disturbed out of envy towards them when they see their glory passing over to them: "I will provoke you by that which is not a people" (Dt 22:21). 883. Then when he says, Now if their trespass, he answers the question as interpreted in the second way and shows that the fall of the Jews is reparable. He does this in three ways: first, from its usefulness; 441 secondly, from the Apostle's intention [v. 12; n. 885]; thirdly, from the condition of that people [v. 16; n. 891]. In regard to the first he presents the following reason: a good is more powerful than an evil in producing usefulness, but the evil which befell the Jews produced something very useful for the Gentiles, therefore, their good will produce greater usefulness for the world. What he is saying is this: It has been said that by their trespass the salvation of the Gentiles was achieved. Now if their trespass, i.e., the Jews', means riches for the world, i.e., for the Gentiles, because the trespass of the Jews resulted in spiritual riches for the Gentiles, (This refers to their guilt, and their failure, by which they fell from the lofty glory they had, pertains to their punishment). "For we are diminished more than any nation and are brought low in all the earth this day for our sins" (Dan 3:37). How much more will their full inclusion, i.e., their spiritual abundance or their multitude converted to God, result in riches for the Gentiles: "My abode is in the full assembly of saints" (Sir 24:16). And so, if for the benefit of the whole world God permitted the Jews to do wrong and be diminished, much more will He repair their disaster for the benefit of the whole world. 885. Then when he says, For I am speaking to you Gentiles, he shows the same things by revealing the purpose of his ministry, which he first states; secondly, he assigns the reason [v. 15; n. 890]. 886. In regard to the first it should be noted that whereas the previous parts of the epistle were directed to all the believers in Rome, whether from the Jews or from the Gentiles, he is now directing his words to the converted Gentiles. 442 887. He says, therefore: I have stated that their fullness will mean riches for the world. As testimony to this I say to you Gentiles, i.e., Gentiles converted to the faith: "I said, 'Behold me' to a nation that did not call upon my name" (Is 65:1). This, I repeat, I say to you: inasmuch as I am an apostle to the Gentiles, the special care of whom has fallen to me on account of the office entrusted to me: "For this was I appointed a preacher and apostle, a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (1 Tim 2:7); I will magnify my ministry not with things that pertain to worldly honor: but first by adorning it with good morals: "As servants of God we commend ourselves in every way in much patience." (2 Cor 6:4). Secondly, by performing extra works to which he was not bound: "What then is my reward? Just this: that by making his anxiety embrace everyone's salvation: "Apart from all other things, there is the daily pressure upon me of my anxiety for all the churches" (2 Cor 11:28). 888. Hence he adds: in order to make my flesh, i.e., the Jews, who are related to me in the flesh, as was said above in chapter 9(:3), jealous: "Do not despise your own flesh" (Is 58:7): and thus save some of them, namely, of the Jews: "not seeking my own advantage but that of many, that they may be saved" (1 Cor 10:33). 889. But this seems contrary to what he says in 2 Cor (10:13): "But we will not boast beyond limit, but will keep to the limits God apportioned us, to reach even to you" But he had not accepted the limit of his service, which was to the Gentiles. Therefore, he should not have concerned himself about the Jews. Some say that the Jews living in Judea did not pertain to his apostolate, but to that of Peter, James and John (Gal c.2). But the Jews living among the Gentiles pertained to his apostolate and he worked for their salvation. 443 But this seems contrary to his statement here. For if those Jews were the limit of his apostolate, he would not be magnifying his service. Therefore, it must be said that preaching to the Gentiles was committed to him in such a way that he was bound to it by necessity, as he says: "Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel. For necessity is laid upon me" (1 Cor 9:16); but he was not forbidden to preach to the Jews, even though he was not bound to do so. Consequently, by working for their salvation he magnified his service. But he would not have done this, if he thought their fall irreparable. Hence the Apostle's very zeal for the conversion of the Jews was the sign he adduced for stating that the fall of the Jews was reparable. 890. Then when he says, For if, he assigns the reason for his interest, namely, that the conversion of the Jews would contribute to the salvation of the Gentiles. Hence he says, For if their loss, i.e., their unbelief and disobedience, as a slave is said to be lost when he flees from the cave and obedience of his master. If I say the loss of the Jews means the reconciliation of the world, inasmuch as we have been reconciled to God through the death of Christ, what will their acceptance mean but life from the dead? i.e., that the Jews will be accepted again by God, as it says in Zech (11:17): "I took unto me two rods." What, I say, will such an acceptance mean but that it will make the Gentiles rise to life? For Gentiles are the believers who will grow lukewarm: "Because wickedness is multiplied, most men's love will grown cold" (Mt 24:12), or will fall away entirely, being deceived by Antichrist. These will be restored to their primitive fervor after the conversion of the Jews. 444 891. Then when he says, If the dough, he proves the same thing by considering the statue of the Jewish race. This he does in two ways. First, on the part of the apostles, when he says: If the representative portion [delibatio] is holy, so is the whole lump. The apostles chosen by God from the Jewish people are the representative sample taken from the whole lump. If, therefore, the apostles are holy, the consequence is that the Jewish people are holy. "You are a holy nation, God's own people" (1 Pt 2:9). 892. Secondly, he proves the same thing on the part of the patriarchs, who are compared to the Jews as root to branches; hence it says in Is (11:1): "there shall come forth a rod from the root of Jesse." If, therefore, the patriarchs, who are the root, are holy, then the Jews, who grew from them as branches, are also holy. 893. But this seems to conflict with what is said in Ex (18:9): "if a man is righteous, he shall surely live." Therefore, it does not follow that if the root is holy, so also the branches. The answer is that the Apostle is not speaking here of actual holiness, for he does not mean to say that unbelieving Jews are holy; but of potential holiness. For if their ancestors and descendents are holy, nothing prevents them from being called back to holiness themselves. Or one might answer that those who imitate the patriarchs are a special type of branch, as it says in Jn (8:39): "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did."

After showing that the fall of the Jews was useful and reparable, the Apostle now forbids the Gentiles to boast against the Jews. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that the converted Gentiles must not boast against the Jews; 446 secondly, he answers an objection from the Gentiles [v. 19; n. 898]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he forbids the Gentiles to boast against the Jews; secondly, he gives the reason for this prohibition [v. 18b; n. 897]. 895. There seemed to be two things that might tempt the Gentiles to boast against the Jews. First, the defection of the Jews. Hence he says: We have stated that if the root is holy, so too the branches. But if some of the branches, i.e., some of the Jews but not all, were broken off, i.e., separated from the faith of their fathers who are compared as the root, do not boast: "The flame will dry up his shoots" (Jb 15:30); "The branches not being perfect shall be broken" (Wis 4:5). The second ground for boasting was their own promotion. But the lower the state from which one has been promoted, the more he is inclined to vain boasting, as it says in Pr (30:21): "By three things the earth is disturbed, and the fourth it cannot bear: By a slave when he reigns..." Hence he reminds them of the low state from which they were raised, saying: And you, O Gentile, a wild olive shoot, i.e., a tree bearing no fruit: "He shall be like tamaric in the desert" (Jer 17:6); "Every tree that does not bear fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire" (Mt 3:10). 896. Then he describes their promotion. First, that they have been raised to the dignity of that race; hence, he says: you were grafted in their place: "He shall break in pieces many and innumerable, and shall make others to stand in their stead" (Job 34:24). 447 Secondly that they have been made associates of the patriarchs, whom he had compared to the root; hence he says: to share the root, i.e., united to the patriarchs and prophets: "Many will come from the east and west, and sit at the table with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Mt 8:11). Thirdly, that they share the glory of the apostles when he says: and share the richness of the olive tree. The Jewish race is called the olive tree on account of the rich spiritual fruit they bore: "The Lord called you once a plentiful olive tree, fruitful and beautiful" (Jer 11:16); "I am like a green olive tree in the house of God" (Ps 52:8). But just as the roots of this olive tree are the patriarchs and prophets, so its richness is the abundance of the Holy Spirit's grace, which the apostles had more than all the others. This, therefore, is the way the Gentiles have been promoted to a partnership with that people, namely, with the patriarchs, apostles and prophets: "You are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets" (Eph 2:19). And although these may seem to be reasons for boasting, do not boast against the branches, i.e., against the Jews: "Your boasting is not good" (1 Cor 5:1). 897. Then when he says, If you do boast, he gives the reason for his admonition, saying: If in spite of this admonition you do boast by insulting the Jews, who stand upright or have been cut off, you should remember as a check to your boasting that it is not you that support the root, but the root that supports you, i.e., Judea did not receive salvation from the Gentiles, but just the reverse: "Salvation is from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). Hence, Abraham was promised that all the nations of the earth would be blessed in him (Gen c.22). 448 898. Then when he says, You will say, he excludes an objection from the Gentiles: first, he presents the objection; secondly, he excludes it [v. 20; n. 900]; thirdly, he urges them to scrutinize God's judgments [v. 22; n. 903]. 899. First, therefore, he says: Therefore, O Gentile, who boasts against the Jews, you might say: Branches were broken off, so that I might be grafted in, i.e., God permitted the Jews to fall from faith, so that I might enter into faith. But no one accepts the loss of one things save for something more precious and more desired, just as a physician allows a foot to remain sore in order to heal the eye. Thus, it would seem that the Gentile nations are more valuable and acceptable to God than Judea. Hence it says in Mal (1:10): "I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord of hosts, and I will not accept an offering from your hands. For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations" and in Is (49:6): "It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob; I will give you as a light to the nations." 900. Then when he says, That is true, he excludes the objection. First, he assigns the reason why the Jews fell away and the Gentiles were promoted, saying: That is true, i.e., that God permitted branches to be broken off, so that you might be grafted in, but consider the cause of the breaking off of the branches. It is because of their unbelief, i.e., because they refused to believe in Christ, that they were broken off: "If I speak the truth, why do you no believe me?" (Jn 8:46).But you, O Gentile, stand fast in faith, i.e., by believing in Christ, through Whom you have obtained 449 grace: "I preached to you the gospel, in which you stand, by which you are saved" (1 Cor 15:1). 901. Secondly, he gives an admonition, saying: So do not become proud, i.e., do not presume on yourself beyond yourself: "Do not be haughty, but consent to lower things" (Rom 12:15); but stand in awe, lest you too be broken off because of unbelief: "The fear of the Lord drives out sin" (Sir 1:27). 902. The reason for this admonition is given when he says: But if the natural branches, i.e., the Jews, who descended by natural origin from the patriarchs, God did not spare but allowed to be broken off, neither will he spare you, i.e., he might permit you to be broken off because of unbelief: "The jealously and rage of the husband will not spare on the day of revenge" (Pr 6:34); "I will not spare and I will not pardon; nor will I have mercy, but to destroy them" (Jer 13:14). This, therefore, is the Apostle's answer; that when someone sees that he has obtained grace and another has fallen, he should not boast against the fallen but rather fear for himself, because pride is the cause of falling headlong and fear is the cause of carefulness and being kept safe. 903. Then when he says, Note then the kindness and severity of God, he invites them to a close scrutiny of divine judgments: first, he invites them to consider; secondly, he instructs them as though unable to consider by themselves [v. 25); n. 912]; thirdly, as though he himself were not perfectly capable of this investigation, he exclaims in admiration of God’s wisdom [v. 33; n. 933]. 450 904. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he shows what should be considered, saying: Note then, i.e., give careful consideration to, the kindness of God having mercy: "How good, O Israel, is God to the upright of heart" (Ps 72:1); "Do you presume upon the riches of his kindness" (Rom 2:4); and his severity in punishing: "O Lord, thou God of vengeance (Ps 94:1); "The Lord is a jealous God and avenging (Nah 1:2). For the first consideration begets hope, the second begets fear, so that despair and presumption are avoided. 905. Secondly, he indicates the ones affected by each of these two qualities, saying: toward those who have fallen, i.e., the Jews, severity: "The Lord has destroyed without mercy all the habitations of Jacob" (Lam 2:2); but to you, the engrafted Gentile, kindness: "You have dealt kindly with your servant, O Lord" (Ps 119:65). 906. Thirdly, he shows how the foregoing points should be considered, since the situation is not immutable but could change in the future. 907. First, he shows this with respect to the Gentiles, saying: To you, I say, kindness, if you persevere in goodness: "Remain in my love" (Jn 15:9); otherwise, if you do not strive to persevere through fear and humility, you too will be cut off: "Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down" (Mt 3:10). 908. Secondly, he shows the same with respect to the Jews. First, he states the fact: and even the others, namely, the Jews, if they do not persist in their unbelief, will be grafted in, i.e., restored to their former status: "Thou has prostituted thyself to many lovers. Nevertheless, return to me, says the Lord" (Jer 3:1). 451 909. Then he proves what he has said: First, from God's power, saying: For God has the power to graft them in against; therefore, their salvation is not to be despaired of: "Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened, that it cannot save" (Is 59:1). Secondly, by arguing from the lesser, saying: For if you, O Gentile, have been cut from what is by nature a wild olive tree, i.e., from Gentileness, which by nature was not fruit-bearing, not as God made nature, but because it was spoiled by sin: "They were a wicked generation, and their malice natural" (Wis 12:10); "We were by nature children of wrath" (Eph 2:3); and grafted into a cultivated olive tree, i.e., into the faith of the Jews, contrary to nature, i.e., against the common course of nature. (For it is not the custom to graft the branch of a bad tree onto a good tree, but vice versa. But what God does is not against nature; it is natural in the fullest sense. For we call that natural which is cause by an agent to which the patient is naturally subject, even if it is not in keeping with the specific nature of the patient; for just as the ebb and flow of the sea is natural, because it is produced by the motion of the moon, to which the water is naturally subject, although it is not natural to the nature of water: so, too, since every creature is naturally subject to God, whatever God does in creatures is natural in the full sense, although it is not natural to the proper and particular nature of the thing in which it is done, say when a blind man has sight restored or a dead man is revived). 911. If, I say, this was contrary to nature, how much more will these natural branches, i.e., which by natural origin pertains to the Jewish nation, be grated back into their own olive tree, i.e., be brought back to the greatness of their nation: "He will turn the hearts of fathers to their children, and the hearts of children to their fathers" (Mal 4:6).

After leading the Gentiles to a knowledge of the divine judgments, in which God's kindness and severity were manifested, the Apostle, acting as though they are still unable to consider these things, explains how they seem to him. First, he presents the fact; secondly, he proves it [v. 26b; n. 917]; 453 thirdly, he gives the reason [v. 30; n. 930]. 913. In regard to the first he does three things. First, he states his intention, saying: IO have urged you to consider the kindness and severity of God, because I want you to understand this mystery, for you cannot grasp all mysteries. Hence, this is a prerogative of the perfect to whom the Lord say: "To you it has been given to understand the mystery of God's kingdom: (Lk 8:9); "I will not hide from you the mysteries of God" (Wis 6:24). But ignorance of this mystery would be very damaging to us. 914. Secondly, he discloses the reason for his intention: that you not be wise in your own conceits, i.e., not presume on your own understanding to condemn others and prefer yourself to them: "Never be conceited" (Rom 1:16); "Woe to those who are wise in their own eyes, and shrewd in their own sight (Is 5:21). 915. Thirdly, he states what he intended. First, with respect to the fall of particular Jews, when he says: a hardening has come upon Israel, not universally but upon a part: "Blind the heart of this people" (Is 6:10). Secondly, he predicts the end of this blindness, saying: until the full number of the Gentiles come in to the faith, i.e., not only some Gentile nations as were then converted; but either in all or the greater part the Church would be establishes: "The earth is the Lord's and all its fullness" (Ps 23:1). The Gentiles converted to the faith are said to come in, as though from the exterior and visible things they venerated into spiritual things and the divine will: "Come into his presence with singing" (Ps 100:2). 454 916. It should be noted that the word, until, can signify the cause of the blindness of the Jews. For God permitted them to be blinded, in order that the full number of the Gentiles come in. It can also designate the termination, i.e., that the blindness of the Jews will last up to the time when the full number of the Gentiles will come to the faith. With this agrees his next statement, namely, and then, i.e., when the full number of the Gentiles has come in, all Israel will be saved, not some, as now, but universally all: "I will save them by the Lord their God" (Hos 1:7); "He will again have compassion upon us (Mic 7:19). 917. Then when he says, As it is written, he proves what he had said about the future salvation of the Jews: first, he proves this with an authority; secondly, with a reason [v. 28; n. 921]. 918. First, therefore, he says: I say that all Israel will be saved, as it is written in Is (59:20), where our text says: "A redeemer will come from Zion and this will be my covenant with them that return to Jacob says the Lord." But the Apostle uses the Septuagint and touches on three things. First, the coming of a Savior, when he says: God will come, in human flesh to save us, from Zion, i.e., from the Jewish people who are signified by Zion, the citadel of Jerusalem, a city in Judea. Hence it says in Zech (9:9): " Rejoice greatly, o daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Lo, our king comes to you..." and in Jn (4:22): "Salvation is from the Jews." 455 Or he says that he comes from Zion, not because he was born there, but because his doctrine went from there into the whole world, inasmuch as the apostles received the Holy Spirit in the cenacle in Zion: "Out of Zion shall go forth the law" (Is 2:3). 919. Secondly, he touches on salvation by Christ offered to the Jews, saying: he will banish ungodliness from Jacob. This could refer to deliverance from punishment: "He will snatch my soul from death" (Ps 115:8). Banish ungodliness from Jacob could refer to deliverance from guilt: "O that deliverance for Israel would come from Zion" (Ps 53:6). Or both could refer to liberation from guilt, but he says he will take out, because of the few, who now are converted with great difficulty and with, so to speak, a certain violence: "As if a shepherd should get out of the lion's mouth two legs, or the tip of the ear, so shall the children of Israel be taken out" (Amos 3:12). But he says will banish ungodliness from Jacob to show the ease with which the Jews will be converted at the end of the world: "Who is a God like thee, pardoning iniquity and passing over transgression for the remnant of his inheritance?" (Mic 7:18). 920. Thirdly, he shows the manner of salvation when hey says: And this will be my covenant with them, a new one from me, when I take away their sins. For the old covenant did not remove sins, because "it is impossible that the blood of bulls and goats should take away sins" (Heb 10:4). Therefore, because the Old Testament was imperfect, a new testament is promised to them: "I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah" (Jer 31:31) and it will have the power to remit sin through the blood of Christ: "This is my blood of the new covenant, which is poured out for many 456 for the forgiveness of sins" (Mt 26:28); "He will cast all our sins into the depths of the sea" (Mic 7:19). 921. Then when he says, As regards the gospel, he proves his statement with a reason: first, he presents the proof; secondly, he removes an objection [v. 29; n. 924]. 922. First, therefore, he says that their sins will be taken away and that after they have sins, they are enemies of Christ. As regards the gospel, which they resist, they are enemies for your sake, i.e., it has turned out to your benefit. Hence, it says in Lk (19:27): "As for those enemies of mind, who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slay them before me"; and in Jn (15:24): "But now they have seen and hated both me and my Father." Or as regards the gospel means their enmity has helped the gospel, which has been spread everywhere by reason of such enmity: "In the word of truth of the gospel, which has come to you, as indeed in the whole world it is bearing fruit and growing" (Col 1:5). 923. But they are beloved by God for the sake of their forefathers as regards election, because He chose their descendants on account of their forefathers' grace: "The Lord loved your fathers and chose their descendants after them" (Dt 10:15). This does not means that the merits established by the fathers were the cause of the eternal election of the descendants, but that God from all eternity chose the fathers and the sons in such a way that the children would obtain salvation on account of the fathers; not as though the merits of the fathers were sufficient for the salvation of the 457 sons, but through an outpouring of divine grace and mercy, the sons would be saved on account of the promises made to the fathers. Or it can mean as regards election, i.e., as regards those elected from that people, salvation was obtained. For if they are dear to God, it is reasonable that they be saved by God: "The eye hath not seen, O God, besides thee, what things thou has prepared for them that wait for thee" (Is 64:4). 924. Then when he says, For the gifts, he excludes an objection. For someone might claim that even though the Jews were formerly beloved on account of their forefathers, nevertheless the hostility they exert against the gospel prevents them from being saved in the future. But the Apostle asserts that this is false, saying: The gifts and call o God are irrevocable, i.e., without repentance. As if to say: That God gives something to certain ones or call certain ones is without repentance, because God does not change His mind: "The Lord has sworn and will not change his mind" (Ps 110:4). 925. However, this seems false, for the Lord says: "It repenteth me that I made man" (Gen 6:7) and "if that nation against which I have spoken shall repent of their evil, I also will repent of the evil that I thought to do to them" (Jer 18:8). The answer is that just as God is said to grow angry, not because the emotion of anger is in him but because he is related to the effect of punishments after the manner of an angry man, so he is said to repent, not because the change involved in repentance is in him but because he changes what he had done after the manner of one who repents. 926. Nevertheless, it does seem that God's gifts are not without repentance, because they are frequently lost, as in Mt (25:28): "Take the talent from him and give it 458 to him that has ten talents." Furthermore, God's call seems to be changed sometimes, since it is written: "Many are called but few are chosen" (Mt 22:14). But it should be noted that "gift" is taken here for a promise made according to God's foreknowledge or predestination, and "call" is taken for election. Because both are so certain, whatever God promises is as good as given and whomever He elects is somehow already called. Such temporal gifts and callings are not voided by a change in God, as though He repented of them, but by a change in man who casts them off: "Take heed lest anyone be wanting in the grace of God" (Heb 12:15). 927. This passage can also be taken to mean that God's gifts which are bestowed in baptism, and the calling by which the baptized person is called, exist without the repentance of the baptized person. Furthermore, it was introduced to counteract any despair about the future salvation of the Jews, since they do not seem to repent of their sin. But against this interpretation are the words of Peter: "Repent and be baptized everyone of you" (Ac 2:38). This can be answered by recalling that repentance is of two kinds: interior and exterior. Interior repentance consists in the heart's contrition by which one is sorry for past sins. Such repentance is required of the baptized, because, as Augustine says: "No one who is arbiter of his own will can begin the new life, unless he repents of the old life; otherwise, he would approach dissembling." But exterior repentance consists in making satisfaction outwardly, and this is not required of the baptized person, because by baptismal grace man is freed not only of guilt but of all penalty, in virtue of the passion of Christ who satisfied for the sins of all: "All 459 of us who have been baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death" (Rom 6:3); "By the washing of regeneration and renewal in the Holy Spirit which he poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ" (*** 3:5). 928. But since the keys of the Church and all the other sacraments work by the power of Christ’s passion, it seems that by the same reasoning all the other sacraments should liberate man from guilt and from all punishment. But the answer is that Christ’s passion works in baptism in the manner of a generation, which requires that a man die completely to his former life to receive a new life. And because the debt of punishment belongs to the oldness of the former life, it is taken away in baptism. But in the other sacraments Christ’s passion works in the manner of a cleansing, as in the sacrament of penance. But a cleansing does not require that right away every remnant of weakness be taken away. And the same argument applies to the other sacraments. 929. But since the confession of sins is relevant for exterior repentance, one could ask whether confession of sins is required at baptism. And it seems that it is, because Mt 3(:6) says that men were baptized by John, "confessing their sins." But the answer is that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance, namely because by receiving that baptism they declared that they would undertake penance for their sins, and so it was fitting that they should confess so that penance could be meted out to them in accord with the nature of their sins. But Christ’s baptism is a baptism for the remission of all sins, such that the baptized person no longer owes any satisfaction for his past sins, and for this reason there is no need for vocal confession. For the reason 460 confession is necessary on the sacrament of penance is so that the priest can, by the power of the keys, fittingly loose or bind the penitent. 930. Then when he says, Just as you were, he gives the reason for the future salvation of the Jews after their unbelief. First, he shows a similarity between the salvation of both people; secondly, the cause of this similarity [v. 32; n. 932]. 931. First, therefore, he says: So I say that Israel will be saved, although they are now enemies. For just as you Gentiles once did not believe God: "You were once without God in the world" (Eph 2:12); but now have received mercy because of their unbelief: below (15:9), "The Gentiles are to honor God for his mercy"; "I will have mercy on him who was without mercy" (Hos 2:23). And this was because of their unbelief, which was the occasion of your salvation, as was said above. So they, i.e., the Jews, now, i.e., in the time of grace, have not believed, namely, Christ: "Why do you not believe me?" (Jn 8:46). And this is what he adds: In order that by the mercy shown to you, i.e., in Christ's grace, by which you have obtained mercy: "You have saved us according to your mercy" (*** 3:5). Or they have not believed so that they enter into your mercy. Or they have not believed, which turned out to be the occasion of the mercy shown to you, in order that they also at some time may receive mercy: "The Lord will have compassion on Jacob" (Is 14:1). 932. Then when he says, For God, he gives the reason for this similarity, namely, because God wills that His mercy find room in all. And this is what he says: For God has included, i.e., allowed to be included, all, i.e., every race of men, both Jews and Gentiles, in unbelief, as in a chain of error: "They were all bound together with one chain of 461 darkness" (Wis 17:17), that he may have mercy on us, i.e., that His mercy find a place in every race of men. This should not be extended to included demons, as Origen would, or even to all men individually, but to all races of men. The statement applies to the genera of individuals not to all the individuals of the genera. God wishes all men to be saved by His mercy, in order that they be humbled by this fact and ascribe their salvation not to themselves but to God: "Destruction is thy own, O Israel: they help is only in me" (Hos 13:9); "In order that every mouth may be stopped, and the whole world may be made subject to God" (Rom 3:19).

Above the Apostle endeavored to assign a reason for the divine judgments, by which Gentiles and Jews obtain mercy after unbelief; now he recognizes his inadequacy for such an investigation and exclaims his admiration of the divine excellence. First, he extols the divine excellence; 462 secondly, he proves what he says [v. 34; n. 938]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he extols the divine wisdom in itself; secondly, in relation to us [v. 33b; n. 937]. 934. He extols the excellence of divine knowledge: first, as to its depth, saying: O the depth: "It is a great depth. Who shall find it out?" (Ec 7:25); "A glorious throne set on high from the beginning" (Jer 17:12). This depth is considered in regard to three things: first, in regard to the thing known, inasmuch as God knows himself perfectly: "I dwell in the highest places" (Sir 24:7); secondly, in regard to the manner of knowing, inasmuch as he knows all things through himself: "The Lord looked down from his holy height, from heaven the Lord looked at the earth" (PS 102:19); thirdly, in regard to the certainty of His knowledge: "The eyes of the Lord are far brighter than the sun" (Sir 23:28). 935. Secondly, he extols the excellence of divine knowledge in regard to its fullness when he says: of the riches "Abundance of salvation, wisdom and knowledge" (Is 33:6). This fullness is regarded in three ways: in one way as to the number of things known, because he knows all things: "Lord, you know all things" (Jn 21:17); "In him are hid all the treasures of wisdom ad knowledge" (Col 2:3); in another way in regard to ease of knowing, because He intuits all things without search and difficulty: "All things are open and laid bare to his eyes" (Heb 4:13). Thirdly, in regard to the abundance of His knowledge, because He gives it generously to everyone: "If anyone lacks wisdom, let him ask God who gives to all men generously" (Jas 1:5). 463 936. Thirdly, he extols the divine excellence in regard to its perfection when he says, of the wisdom and knowledge of God. For He has wisdom about divine things and knowledge about created things. "Who knows all things knows her" (Bar 3:32). 937. Then when he says, How incomprehensible, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom as compared to our understanding. And first in regard to wisdom, whose function is to judge and put things in order, he says: How incomprehensible are his judgments, because man cannot comprehend the reason of God's judgments, since they are hidden in his wisdom: "Thy judgments are like the great deep" (Ps 36:6). Secondly, in regard to knowledge, through which he is at work in things; hence he adds: and unsearchable i.e., his procedures, by which he works in creatures. Even though the creatures are known by man, the ways in which God works in them cannot be comprehended by man: "Thy way was through the sea, they path through the great waters; yet their footprints were unseen (Ps 77:19); "Where is the way to the dwelling of light" (Jb 38:19). 938. The when he says, For who, he proves what he had said by appealing to two authorities, one of which is Is 40(:13): For who has helped the spirit of the Lord, or who has been his counselor? The other is from Job (35:7; 41:11): Or who has given a gift to him that he might be repaid? In these words and those that follow them the Apostle does three things. 939. First, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom as compared to our understanding, saying: For who has known the mind of the Lord, namely, through which He judges and acts. As if to say: No one, unless God reveals it: "Who shall know they 464 though, except thou give wisdom, and send they Holy Spirit from above:" (Wis 9:17) and "The things of God no one knows but the Spirit of God. But to us God has revealed them through his Spirit" (1 Cor 2:12 & 10). Secondly, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom according as it has height in itself, and indeed is that height which is the supreme principle. Two points pertain to this: first, that it does not proceed from something else; secondly, that other things proceed from it [v. 36; n. 942]. 941. That God's wisdom does not depend on a higher source is shown in two ways. First, by the fact that it is not instructed by someone else's teaching. Hence, he says: Or who has been his counselor? As if to say: No one. For counsel is needed by one who does not fully know how something is to be done, and this does not apply to God: "To whom has thou given counsel? Perhaps to him that has no wisdom" (Jb 26:3). Secondly, by the fact that it is not helped by another's gift. Hence he adds: Or who has given a gift to him that he might be repaid, as one giving first? As if to say: No one. For man can give God only what he has received form God: "All this abundance comes from thy hand and is all thy own" (1 Chr 29:16); "If thou do justly, what shalt thou give him, or what shall he receive of thy hand" (Jb 35:7). 942. Then when he says, For from him, he shows God's depth, inasmuch as in Him are all things. First, he shows its causality; secondly, its dignity [v. 36b; n. 950]; 465 thirdly, its perpetuity [v.36c; n. 951]. 943. First, therefore, he says: It is right to say that no one first gave to him, because from him and through him and in him are all things. Thus nothing can be unless received from God. To designate God's causality he uses three prepositions, namely, "from", "through" and "in". But the preposition "from" [ex] denotes a principle of change; and this is in three ways. In one way the acting or movent principle; in another way the matter, in a third way the opposite contrary, which is the point of departure of the change. For we say that the knife came to be "from" the knife maker, "from" the steel, and "from" the unshaped [matter]. But the universe of creatures was not made from pre-existing matter, because even their matter is an effect of God. Accordingly, created things are not said to be from something but from its opposite, which is nothing; because they were nothing, before they were created to exist: "We are born of nothing" (Wis 2:2). But all things are from God as from their first maker: "All things are from God" (1 Cor 11:12). 944. It should be noted that another Latin word for "from" is de, which seems to suggest the same relationships; however, de always designates a consubstantial cause. For we say that the knife is from [de] the iron, but not from [de] the maker. Therefore, because the Son proceeds from the Father as consubstantial with Him, we say that the Son is from [de] the Father. But creatures do not proceed from God as consubstantial with Him; hence, they are not said to be from [de] Him but from [ex] Him. 466 945. The preposition, "through" designates the cause of an action; but because an action lies between the maker and the things he makes, there are two ways in which the preposition, "through," can designate the cause of an action. In one way accordingly as the action comes from its performer, as something which is its own cause of acting is said to act through itself. In one way this is the form, as we say that fire acts through heat. In another way it is a higher agent, as we say that man begets man through the power of the sun or rather of God. So, therefore, all things are said to be through him in two ways: In one way as through the first agent, by whose power all things act: "Through me kings reign" (Pr 8:15). In another way, inasmuch as His wisdom, which is His essence, is the form through which God makes all things: "The Lord through wisdom founded the earth" (Pr 3:19). 946. In another way the preposition, "through," designates the cause of an action, not as it comes from the performer but as terminated in its products, as we say that the artisan makes a knife through a hammer: not that the hammer works with the artisan in the way described above, but because the knife comes to be from the activity of the artisan by means of the hammer. Therefore, it is said that this preposition, "through," designates authority directly, as when we say that the king acts through his bailiff—which pertains to what is now being said. But sometimes in a causal sense, as when we say that the bailiff acts through the king—which pertains to the preceding mode. In this mode about which we are now speaking, all things are said to have been made by the Father through the Son, as in Jb (1:3): "All things were made through him," not that the Father has from the Son the power to make thing, but rather that the Son 467 accepts the power of making things from the Father, a power not instrumental but principal, not of a lower order but equal, not diverse but the same: "Whatever the Father does, that the Son does likewise" (Jn 5:19). Hence, although all things were made by the Father through the Son, The Son is not an instrument or minister of the Father. 947. The preposition, "in," also designates a causal relationship in three ways: in one way it designates matter, as we say that the soul is in the body or a form in matter. This is not the way in which things are said to be in God, because He is not the material cause of things. In another way it designates a relationship of efficient cause, in whose power it lies to dispose of its effects. In this sense all things are said to be in Him, inasmuch as all things lie under His power and arrangement: "In his hand are all the ends of the earth" (Ps 95:4); "In him we live and move and have our being" (Ac 17:28). In a third way it designates a relationship of final cause, in that the entire good of a thing and its preservation consists in its own optimum. In this sense all things are said to be in God as in the goodness preserving them. "All things hold together in him" (Col 1:17). 948. When he says, All, it is not be taken absolutely for all things which have true being. Sins do not have true being, but insofar as they are sins they lack some being, due to the fact that evil is nothing else than a deprivation of good. Therefore, when he says: From him and through him and to him are all things, this does not include sin, because, according to Augustine, since is nothing and man accomplishes nothing when he sins. yet, whatever entity is present in sin, it is from God. 468 949. Therefore, according to the foregoing, all things are from Him, i.e., God as from the first operating power. All things are through Him, inasmuch as He makes all things through His wisdom. All things are in Him as in their preserving Goodness. Now these three things, namely, power, wisdom and goodness are common to the three persons. Hence, the statement that from him and through him and in him can be applied to each of the three persons. Nevertheless, the power, which involved the notion of principle, is appropriated to the Father, Which is the principle of the entire godhead; wisdom to the Son, Who proceeds as Word, which is nothing else than wisdom begotten; goodness is appropriated to the Holy Spirit, Who proceeds as love, whose object is goodness. Therefore, by appropriation we can say: from him, namely, from the Father, through him, namely, through the Son, in him, namely, in the Holy Spirit, are all things. 950. Then when he says, To him be honor and glory forever, he allows God's dignity, which consists in the two things previously mentioned. For from the fact that all things are from Him and through Him and in Him, honor and reverence and subjection are owed Him by every creature: "If I am a father, where is my honor" (Ma. 1:6). But from the fact that He has not received either counsel or gifts from anyone, glory is owed Him; just as on the contrary it is said of man: "If then you received it, why do you boast as though it were not a gift?" (1 Cor 4:7). And because this is proper to God, it says in Is (42:8): "I am the Lord; my glory I give to no other." 951. Finally, he mentions His eternity when he says: unto the ages of ages, because His glory does not pass as does man's glory, of which it is said: "All its glory is 469 like the flower of the filed" (Is 40:6). But God's glory lasts for all ages, i.e., through all the ages succeeding all ages, inasmuch as the duration of any given thing is called an age. Or unto the ages of ages refers to the durations of incorruptible things, which contain the ages of corruptible things. This applies especially to God’s eternity, which can be spoken of as a plurality because of the multitude and diversity of things contained in it, even though it is one and simple in itself. The meaning would then be "unto the ages that contain the ages": "Your reign is a reign of all ages" (Ps 144:13). 952. He adds: Amen, as confirmation. As if to say: Truly it is so. This is the meaning in the gospels when it says: "Amen, I say to you." Sometimes, however, it means: May it come to pass.

953. Having shown the need for virtues and the origin of grace [n. 97], here the Apostle teaches how grace should be used, a subject pertaining to moral instruction. And he does two things in this regard. First he sets out a general moral teaching; Second, he descends to more particular questions related to the recipients of his letter, around the middle of chapter 15 at [verse 14; n. 1163] I myself am assured. And regarding the first, he does two things. First, he teaches how one should use grace to be a perfect man; Second, how the perfect man should sustain the imperfect, in chapter 14 there [verse 1; n. 1081] at Now as for the man who is weak. Concerning the first, he does three things. 471 First he offers instruction about that perfection of life relating to the sanctity by which we a man serves God; Second, relating to righteous dealings with one’s neighbor, in chapter 13 at [verse 1; n. 1016] Let every soul; Third, relating to that purity a man must preserve within himself, around the end of the thirteenth chapter at [verse 11; n. 1060] And knowing this. Regarding the first, he does two things. First he admonishes that a man should present himself holy to God; Second, he teaches how one should use the gifts of God’s grace that make one holy, there [n. 968] at For I say, by the grace. First he teaches how one should present himself to God as regards the body; Second, as regards the soul, there [n. 965] at And be not conformed. 954. Regarding the first, he does two things [n. 957]. First he leads them to heed what he has taught, and this in two ways [n. 956]. First on his own account, when he says, I beseech you therefore, brothers, as though to say: God’s judgment were described as beyond all comprehension, and his ways as beyond all investigation, and so I beseech you, brothers, that you heed that you have been taught. 955. Now he resorts to beseeching them for three reasons. First, to show his humility: "With supplication speaks the poor man," the one who puts no trust in his own wealth, and on this account attempts to compel men to good deeds not by what belongs to him but by what belongs to God. For to beseech [obsecrare] is to call on sacred things as witnesses [ob sacra contestari]. 472 31 Augustine, City of God, book 10, chapter 5. Second, to move his readers more by asking than by fear, than by commanding as one in authority: "Accordingly, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required, yet for love's sake I prefer to appeal to you" (Phm 8-9); "You who are spiritual, instruct such a one in a spirit of gentleness" (Gal 6:1). Third, out of reverence for the Romans, to whom he wrote: "Do not rebuke an older man but exhort him as you would a father." 956. Next he leads them to heeding on God’s account when he says, by the mercy of God, that mercy by which you are saved: "According to his mercy he saved us" (*** 3:5). And so when we consider God’s mercy we should do what we have been taught: "Should you not have had mercy on your fellow servant, as I had mercy on you?" (Matt 18:33). Or it could mean by the mercy of God, i.e., in virtue of the apostolic authority mercifully entrusted to me: "I give my opinion as one who by the Lord’s mercy is trustworthy" (I Cor 7:25). 957. Secondly, he gives the admonition when he says: present your bodies as a living sacrifice. Here it should be noted that, as Augustine says in the tenth book of The City of God,31 a visible sacrifice offered outwardly to God is a sign of an invisible sacrifice, whereby one offers himself and all he possesses for God’s service. 958. Now man possesses three goods. First, he has the soul, which is presented to God by humble devotion and contrition: "The sacrifice acceptable to God is a contrite spirit" (Ps 51:17). 473 Secondly, a man has external goods, which he presents to God by giving alms: "Do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such sacrifices are pleasing to God" (Heb 13:16). Thirdly, a man has the good which is his own body. In regard to this he says: present, i.e., to God, your bodies, as a spiritual sacrifice. Now an animal offered to God was called a sacrifice [hostia], either because it was offered for victory over enemies [hostium] or for protection from enemies [hostium] or because it was offered in the entrance [ostium] of the Tabernacle. 959. A person can present his body to God as a sacrifice in three ways. First, when he exposes his body to suffering and death for God’s sake, as it is said of Christ: "He gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God" (Eph 5:2); and as the Apostle says of himself: "Even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I rejoice" (Phil 2:17). Secondly, when he weakens his body by fasts and watchings in the service of God: "I pommel my body and subdue it" (I Cor 9:27). Thirdly, when he uses his body to perform acts of righteousness and of divine worship: "Present your members to serve righteousness for sanctification" (Rom 6:19). 960. Moreover, one should recall that the offering sacrificed to God had four features. First, the thing offered was to be sound and unimpaired; hence Malachi 1(:14), "Cursed be the cheat who has a male in his flock and vows it, and yet sacrifices to the Lord what is blemished." And this is why he says living, i.e., that the offering we make 474 32 Proprie autem sanctitas dicitur per respectum ad Deum, inquantum scilicet homo servat ea quae sunt iusta, quoad Deum. to God of our body be living by faith formed by love: "The life I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of God" (Gal 2:20). Note here that a natural sacrificial offering previously alive was killed and immolated to show that death as yet ruled the human race so long as sin reigned, as was said above (Rom 5:12ff). But this spiritual sacrificial offering is always alive and increasing in vigor, in accord with John 10(:10), "I came that they may have life and have it abundantly," because sin has now been removed through Christ; unless we say that the sacrificial offering of our body is something alive to God through the righteousness of faith but is dead to the desires of the flesh: "Put to death, therefore, what is earthly in you" (Col 3:5). 961. Secondly, the sacrificial offering presented to God was sanctified in its very immolation. Hence it is written: "Every man of your race who, having an uncleanness, approaches these things that are consecrated, and that the children of Israel offer to the Lord, shall perish before the Lord" (Lev 22:3). Therefore, he adds holy, made so by the devotion with which we bind our bodies to the service of God: "Consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy, because I the Lord your God am holy" (Lev 20:7). Now "holiness" in the proper sense bespeaks a relation to God, insofar as one does what is righteous before God.32 962. Thirdly, when the sacrifice was consummated, it was described as a sacrifice pleasing and acceptable to God: "The priest shall burn the whole on the altar as a burnt offering, an offering by fire, a pleasing odor to the Lord" (Lev 1:9). Hence, he says: 475 33 This phrase is omitted from Mark 9:49 in modern critical texts of the New Testament and so does not appear in modern English translations. pleasing to God, by reason of a right intention: "That I may be pleasing to God in the light of the living" (Ps 56:13). 963. Fourthly, in the preparation of the sacrifice, salt was added: "You shall season all your offerings with salt" (Lev 2:13); "Every victim shall be salted with salt" (Mk 9:49).33 Now salt signifies a wise discretion; hence he says: "Conduct yourselves wisely toward outsiders. Let your speech always be gracious, seasoned with salt" (Col 4:5). Hence, he continues: your spiritual worship [your reasonable service], i.e., be discreet in presenting your bodies to God as a sacrifice whether by martyrdom or abstinence or any other righteous work, because "all things should be done decently and in order" (I Cor 14:40); "The king’s honor loves judgment" (Ps 99:4). 964. The righteous man is related one way to internal acts, by which He serves God, and another way to external acts. For a man’s good and his righteousness consist mainly in the internal acts, by which he believes, hopes and loves. Hence it says in Luke 17(:21), "The kingdom of God is within you." For it does not consist principally of interior works, as is said below in chapter 14(:7), "The kingdom of God is not food and drink." Hence, internal acts stand as an end sought for its own sake, whereas external acts, in which our bodies are presented to God, stand as means to the end. No limit is set on something sought as an end; rather, the greater it is the better it is. But on what is sought as a means to an end, a limit is set in accord with its proportion to that end. Thus, a doctor seeks as much health as possible, but he does not give as much medicine as he can; rather, he limits it to the amount required for restoring health. 476 Similarly, a person should set no limit on his faith, hope and love; rather, the more he believes and hopes and loves, the better he is. Hence it is stated in Deuteronomy 6(:4), "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might." But in external acts a discreet limit is imposed by the requirements of love. Hence Jerome says: "Does not rational man lose his dignity, if he chooses to fast and watch at the expense of his bodily health or incur the marks of madness or sadness from singing the Psalms and office?" 965. Then when he says, do not be conformed and so on, he explains how one should present himself to God as regards the soul. And first he forbids conformity to the age, when he says do not be conformed to this age, i.e., to things that pass with time. For the present age is the measure of things that slide past in time. And a person is conformed to temporal things when he clings to them with love: "They became detestable, like the things they loved" (Hos 9:10); "Religion that is pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows in their affliction and to keep oneself unstained from this world" (Jas 1:27). The one who imitates worldly lifestyles is also conformed to this age: "I testify in the Lord that you must no longer live as the Gentiles do" (Eph 4:17). 966. Secondly, he tells them to reform their minds inwardly, when he says: but be reformed by the newness of your sense. 477 34 Sensus here translates the Greek word nous, best rendered "mind"; the Nova Vulgata has mentis. Man’s sense is here called his "reason," because with the senses man forms judgments about what is to be done.34 When man was created, this sense was sound and vigorous: "He filled their hearts with sense, and showed them good and evil" (Sir 17:7); but by sin it was corrupted and, as it were, grown old: "You have grown old in a foreign land" (Bar 3:10). As a consequence, it lost its beauty and charm: "From the daughter of Zion has departed all her charm" (Lam 1:6). Therefore, the Apostle tells us to be reformed, i.e., to take up again that beauty and elegance which the mind once had. This is accomplished by the grace of the Holy Spirit. If a person does not share in this grace, he should desire to do so, and if he does share in it, he should desire to progress in it: "Be renewed in the spirit of your minds" (Eph 4:23); "Your youth shall be renewed like the eagle’s" (Ps 103:5). Or, interpreting in another way, be renewed in your outward actions in the newness of your sense, i.e., in the newness of grace, which you have received in your mind. 967. Thirdly, he gives a reason for this admonition when he says: that you may perceive what is the will of God. Here it should be noted that just as a person with a diseased palate misjudges the taste of foods and sometimes recoils from the tasty but approves the disgusting, whereas a person with a healthy palate judges tastes correctly; so a person whose affections are corrupted by conformity to worldly things misjudges the good, whereas a person whose affections are upright and sound, his sense having been renewed by grace, judges the good correctly. 478 That is why he said: Do not be conformed to this world, but be reformed by the newness of your sense, namely that you may prove, i.e., know by experience: "Taste and see that the Lord is sweet" (Ps 34:8). What is the will of God, by which he wills that you be saved: "This is the will of God, your sanctification" (1Thess 4:3). That will is good, i.e., he wills that we will the honorable good and by his precepts leads us to it: "I will show you, O man, what is good, and what God requires of you" (Mic 6:8). And acceptable, inasmuch as what God wills that we will is pleasant to a well-disposed person: "The precepts of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart" (Ps 19:8). Indeed, what God wills is not only useful for attaining our end but also perfect, uniting us, as it were, with the end: "You must be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Mt 5:48); "Walk before me and be perfect" (Gen 17:1). God’s will is experienced as good, pleasing and perfect by those who are not conformed to this age, but are reformed in the newness of their sense. On the other hand, those who continue in their oldness, being conformed to this age, judge that God’s will is not good but burdensome and unprofitable: "Wisdom seems very harsh to the uninstructed" (Sir 6:20). 968. Then when he says, For I say, by the grace that is given me, he teaches how God’s gifts should be used. First, he teaches this in regard to gifts that are not common to all, such as the graces freely given [gratia gratis data]; secondly, in regard to the gift of charity, which is common to all, there [verse 9; n. 983] at love without pretense. In regard to the first he does two things. 479 First, he teaches in general how one ought to use gratia gratis data; secondly, he follows this up in the parts, there [verse 6; n. 976] at having gifts. Concerning the first, he does two things. First he sets out the instruction; second, he gives the reason for it, there [verse 4; n. 972] at For as in one body. 969. In regard to the first he does three things. First, he warns against excess, saying: I have encouraged you to be renewed by the newness of your sense, but you should do this in moderation, for I say, i.e., I command, by the grace of the apostleship and the apostolic authority given to me: "When they perceived the grace that was given to me among the Gentiles" (Gal 2:9); "to me, the least of all the saints, this grace was given" (Eph 3:8). Every one among you, because it is profitable to every one: "I wish that all were as I myself am" (I Cor 7:7). This, I say, I command: not to be more wise than it is necessary to be wise, i.e., no one should presume, relying on his own sense or wisdom beyond his limitations: "Be not wiser than is necessary" (Ec 7:16); "I have not walked among great things, nor among marvels above me" (Ps 131:1). 970. Secondly, he exhorts them to a middle course, saying but be wise unto sobriety, i.e., I direct you to be wise commensurate with the grace given to you. For although sobriety implies a measure. And although the word taken in its proper sense has to do with drinking wine, it can be used in regard to any matter in which a person should observe a due measure: "Training us to live sober, upright and godly lives in this world" (*** 2:12). 480 971. Thirdly, he teaches how the middle course should be gauged when he says: and this, I say, as God has divided, i.e., distributed, to each one the measure of faith, i.e., the measure of his gifts, which are given for the building up of the faith: "To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good" (I Cor 12:7). For God does not give such gifts the same to all, but distributes different ones to different persons: "There are varieties of gifts" (I Cor 12:4). Nor does he give them equally to all, but to each according to a definite measure: "Grace was given to each of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift" (Eph 4:7). That is why the Apostle, thinking with sober judgment according to this measure, said: "We will not boast beyond measure, but will keep to the measure of the rule by which God has measured out to us" (2 Cor 10:13). To Christ alone has the Spirit been given without measure, as it says in John 3(:34). God gives not only the gratia gratis data according to a measure, but even that faith which works through love. Hence the apostles said to Christ: "Lord, increase our faith" (Lk 17:15).

972. After this admonition the Apostle assigns a reason based on the mystical body’s likeness to a natural body. First, he touches on three things in a natural body; first, its unity when he says: For as in one body; secondly, the multiplicity of members when he says: we have many members; for the human body is an organism consisting of various members; thirdly, the variety of functions when he says: all the members do not 482 have the same function. For the variety of members would serve no purpose unless they were ordered to different functions. 973. Then he likens these three aspects to the mystical body of Christ, which is the Church: "He made him the head over all things for the church, which is his body" (Eph 1:22). Concerning which he touches on three things [n. 974ff]. First, he touches on the number of members, i.e., of believers when he says: so we, though many: "A man once gave a great banquet and invited many" (Lk 14:16); "Many are the children of the desolate" (Is 54:1). For although they are few compared to the unfruitful multitude of the damned, according to Matthew 7(:14), "Narrow is the way that leads to life, and few there are who find it," yet absolutely speaking, they are many: "After this he looked, and behold, a great multitude which no man could number" (Rev 7:9). 974. Secondly, he touches on the unity of the mystical body when he says we are one body: "that he might reconcile us both to God in one body through the cross" (Eph 2:16). This mystical body has a spiritual unity through we are united to one another and to God by faith and love: "There is one body and one spirit" (Eph 4:4). And because the Spirit of unity flows into us from Christ—"Anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him" (Rom 8:9)—he adds in Christ, who unites us to one another and to God by his Spirit whom he gives us: "That they may be one even as we are one" (Jn 18:22). 483 35 The verse in Matthew continues: "…to each according to his ability." 975. Thirdly, he touches on the variety of functions, which is rooted in the common good [utilitatem], when he says: and individually members one of another. For any given member has its own function and power. Therefore, inasmuch as the function and power of one member aids another, it is said to be the other’s member; thus, the foot is called the eye’s member, inasmuch as it directs the foot: "the eye cannot say to the hand, ‘I have no need of you’" (I Cor 12:21). So, too, in the mystical body one who has received the gift of prophecy needs the one who has received the gift of healing, and so on for all the others. Hence, as long as each believer uses the grace given him to help another, he becomes the other’s member: "Bear one another’s burdens" (Gal 6:2); "As each has received a gift, employ it for one another" (I Pt 4:10). Then when he says, having gifts, he explains in more detail the previous general admonition [n. 968] to use grace in a sober and moderate way. First, he sets out the variety of graces: we are, I say, members one of another, not on account of the same grace, but by having different gifts; and this is not due to differing merits but according to the grace given to us: "Each has his own special gift from God, one of one kind and another of another" (I Cor 7:7); "He called his servants and gave to each his goods, and to one he gave five talents, to another two, and to another only one" (Mt 25:14).35 977. Secondly, he touches on the use of different graces, and first with respect to knowledge of divine things, saying: if prophecy, the one among us who has it should use it according to the rule of faith. 978. Prophecy is a kind of apparition arising from the divine revelation of things far remote. Hence it is said in I Sam 9(:9), "He who is now called a prophet was 484 formerly called a seer." Among matters far remote from our knowledge some are remote of their very nature, as future contingents, which are not knowable, because their causes are indeterminate; but divine matters are remote from our knowledge not of their very nature, for they are knowable in the highest degree, because "God is light and there is no darkness in him" (I Jn 1:5), but on account of the weakness of our intellect, which is related to matters most evident as the eye of an owl to sunlight. And because something is said to be thus and so in a truer sense, when it is thus and so on its own account rather than on account of something else, future contingents are in a truer sense said to be far from our knowledge. For this reason they are the proper concern of prophecy: "Surely the Lord God does nothing without revealing his secret to his servants the prophets" (Am 3:7). But prophecy in a general sense includes the revelation of any secret things. This gift of prophecy existed not only in the Old Testament but in the New as well: "I will pour out my spirit on all flesh: your sons and daughters shall prophesy" (Jl 2:28). In the Old Testament those who explained prophetic statements were also called prophets, because Sacred Scripture is explained in the same spirit as it is written: "I shall pour out teaching like prophecy" (Sir 24:46). 979. The gift of prophecy, as all the other charismatic graces, is ordained to the building up of faith: "To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good" (I Cor 12:7); "It was declared," i.e., the doctrine of faith, "by the Lord…, while God also bore witness by signs and wonders and various miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit" (Heb 2:30). Consequently, prophecy should be used in proportion to our faith, i.e., not in vain but in order that faith be strengthened not opposed by it: "If a prophet arises among you and says, ‘Let us go after other gods,’ you shall not listen to the 485 words of that prophet’" (Dt 13:1), because he is not prophesying in proportion to the faith. 980. In regard to administering the sacraments he adds: if service, in our serving, i.e., if one has received the grace or office of the ministry, such as the bishop or priest who are called God’s ministers - "You shall be called the priests of the Lord, the ministers of our God" (Is 56:6) - let him perform his office diligently by ministering: "Fulfill your ministry" (2 Tim 4:5). 981. Secondly, he touches on matters pertinent to human affairs in which one person can help another: first, with respect to knowledge both speculative and practical. With respect to speculative knowledge he says: He who teaches, i.e., who has the office or grace of teaching, let him use it in teaching, i.e. teach diligently and faithfully: "Behold, you have taught man" (Jb 4:3); "Go, therefore, and teach all nations" (Mt 28:19). With respect to practical knowledge he says: he who exhorts, i.e., has the office and grace of exhorting, let him use it in exhorting: "Our appeal does not spring from error or uncleanness, nor is it made with guile" (I Th 2:3); "Declare these things; exhort with all authority" (*** 2:15). 982. Then he mentions those that pertain to external works in which a person sometimes helps another by giving a gift. In this regard he says: He who contributes, i.e., has the power and grace to contribute, should do this in simplicity, namely, with no evil ulterior motive, such as enticing men to evil with gifts, and with no intention of obtaining a great deal more from the small amount given: "A stupid man’s gift will bring 486 you no advantage, his eyes look for seven times as much in return. He gives little and reviles much" (Pr 11:3). Sometimes one helps another, because he has charge of him. In regard to this he says: he who rules, i.e., has been entrusted with the office of prelate, should use that office with zeal [solicitude]: "Obey your leaders and submit to them; for they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give an account" (Heb 13:17); "My anxiety for all the churches" (2 Cor 11:28). Again, sometimes one helps another by easing his misery. In regard to this he says: He who does acts of mercy, i.e., has the means and a merciful heart, should do this with cheerfulness, as doing it gladly: "Not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver" (2 Cor 9:7); "In every gift make your countenance cheerful" (Sir 35:11). 983. Then [n. 968] when he says, let love be genuine, he shows how to use a gift which is common to all, namely, charity. First, he states what pertains to charity in general; secondly, charity toward special classes of persons [v. 13; n. 993]. With respect to the first he does three things: first, he describes the qualities of charity as it exists in the one possessing it; secondly, the qualities of charity toward one’s neighbor [v. 10; n. 985]; thirdly, toward God [v. 11; n. 987]. 984. In regard to the qualities of charity he teaches three things. First, that charity should be true. Hence he says: let love be genuine [without pretense], so that it consist not in word or outward appearance but in a genuine affection 487 of heart and in efficacious works: "Let us not love in word or speech, but in deed and in truth" (I Jn 3:18); "Nothing can compare to a faithful friend" (Sir 6:15). Secondly, he teaches that love should be pure when he says: hate what is evil. Love is pure when a person does not consent to his friend in evil, but so loves him that he hates his vices: "It does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the truth" (I Cor 13:6); "I hate the impious" (Ps 119:113). Thirdly, he teaches that love should be honorable when he says: hold fast to what is good, so that one adheres to another because of his virtuous goodness: "Always emulate the good in his goodness" (Gal 4:18). 985. Then when he says, love one another with brotherly affection, he shows how charity should be shown to one’s neighbor. And first as regards interior affection, when he says love one another with brotherly affection, i.e., so that through charity we not only love the brethren but even love the very charity by which we love them and are loved by them. For if we regard charity as such a great treasure, we will not allow it to be dissolved so easily: "Let brotherly love continue" (Heb 13:1); "If a man offered for love all the wealth of his house, it would be utterly scorned" (Song 8:7). 986. Secondly, with respect to its outward effect when he says: outdo one another in showing honor. Three things are designated here. First, that a person should hold the neighbor in reverence. This pertains to the very notion of honor, for no one can truly love a person he despises: "In humility, count others better than yourselves" (Phil 2:3). This is realized when one considers his own shortcomings and the good qualities of his neighbor. Under the heading of honor are 488 included not only honor but the provision of necessities, for when it is commanded in Ex (20:12): "Honor your father and your mother," the provision of necessiti4es is commanded. This is clear from the fact that Our Lord in Mt (a5:3ff) rebuked the Pharisees for violating this precept by hindering children from helping their parents. Secondly, it designates that the effect of love should be shown mutually, i.e., a person should desire not only to receive benefits but also to grant them: "Let not your hand be stretched out to receive and clenched when it is time to give" (Si 4:31); "In dividing by lot, give and take" (Si 14:15). He refers to this when he says: one another. Thirdly, he designates that the effect of love should be prompt and swift, when he says: anticipate, so that one should anticipate a friend in doing favors: "Every friend declares his friendship" (Sir 37:1). 987. Then when he says, in zeal, he shows the qualities surrounding charity’s love of God. First, he starts with reason’s attentiveness when he says: never flag in zeal [carefulness], when it is a question of worshiping God: "He has showed you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you," and he continues: "but to walk carefully with your God?" (Mic 6:8); "Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved" (2 Tim 2:15). 988. Secondly, the affections when he says: be aglow in the spirit, namely, in loving God. Being aglow [fervor] comes from an abundance of heat; hence it is called fervor of spirit, because the whole person is aglow toward God on account of the abundance of 489 his love: "Apollos, being fervent in spirit, spoke and taught concerning Jesus" (Ac 19:25); "Do not quench the Spirit" (I Th 5:19). 989. Thirdly, the outward homage when he says: serve the Lord, namely, with the worship of latria, which is paid to God alone: "The Lord your God shall you adore and him alone shall you serve" (Dt 6:13); "Serve the Lord with fear" (Ps 2:11). Or according to another text, serving the time, namely that we should perform our service of God at the fitting time: "There is a time and an opportunity for every affair" (Ecc 8:6). 990. Fourthly, the reward of serving when he says: rejoicing in hope, namely of a reward which is the enjoyment of God: "I, the Lord, am your reward exceedingly great" (Gen 15:2); "We rejoice in our hope of sharing the glory of God" (Rom 5:2). But hope rejoices a man by reason of its certainty, but it afflicts him by reason of its delay: "Hope deferred makes the heart sick" (Pr 13:12). 991. Fifthly, the difficulty a person endures in the service of God when he says: in tribulation, which you endure for God, be patient: "Tribulation produces patience "(Rom 5:3) 992. Sixthly, in the light of all the foregoing he says: be constant in prayer, in which is indicated continuance in prayer: "We ought always to pray and not lose heart" (Lk 18:1); "Pray constantly" (I Th 5:17). For by prayer carefulness is aroused in us and fervor kindled, we are stimulated to serve God, the joy of hope is increased and we win help in tribulation: "In my distress I called on the Lord and he answered me" (Os 120:1). 490 993. Then when he says, contribute, he discusses charity with regard to certain particular persons. First, as regards the needy; second, as regards enemies [v. 14; n. 996]. 994. Concerning the first he does two things. First, he urges in general that the subventions of charity be afforded to the needy, when he says: Contribute to the needs of the saints. Three things should be noted here: first, that alms be given out of charity to the poor and needy: "Let him labor, doing honest work with his hands, so that he may be able to give to others in need" (Eph 4:28). Secondly, that upright and saintly persons should be helped before others; hence he says: to the needs of the saints: "Give to the good man; refuse the sinner" (Sir 12:4). This does not mean that sinners should not be helped in their needs, but that they should not be helped so as to nourish sin. Yet it is more useful to help the just, because such an alms is fruitful not only for the giver but also from the prayers of the recipient: "Make friends for yourselves by means of unrighteous mammon, so that when it fails they may receive you into the eternal habitations" (Lk 16:19), namely, by their prayers. 995. Then he urges them to be hospitable when he says: practice hospitality, because the other works of mercy are included in this one. For a host offers not only his home as a shelter, but provides for other needs as well: "Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers" (Heb 13:12); "Practice hospitality ungrudgingly to one another" (I Pt 4:9).

996. Above the Apostle showed that charity should be practiced toward the needy, now he shows how it should be practiced even toward enemies: first, he gives the admonition; secondly, he proves what he said [v. 19b; n. 1013]. With respect to the first it should be noted that three things pertain to charity: first, benevolence, which consists in willing good to another and not willing evil; secondly, concord, which consists in friends willing the same thing and rejecting the same thing; thirdly, beneficence, which consists in doing good and causing no injury to the one loved. First, therefore, he touches on matters pertaining to benevolence; 492 secondly, to concord [v. 15; n. 1003]; thirdly, to beneficence [v. 17; n. 1007]. 997. In regard to the first he does two things. First, he urges that benevolence be broad enough to include enemies when he says: Bless those who persecute you. Here it should be noted that to bless [bene-dicere] is to say something good. This can happen in three ways: first, by asserting a good, as when one person praises another’s good points: "The lips of many shall bless him that is liberal of his bread; and the testimony of his truth is faithful" (Sir 31:28). Secondly, by commanding: to bless in this way belongs to God by Whose command something good comes to creatu4es, or it belongs to His ministers who invoke the Lord’s name upon the people: "Thus shall you bless the sons of Israel and say to them: The Lord bless you and guard you. The Lord show His face to you and have mercy on you. The Lord turn His countenance toward you and give you peace" (Num 6:22-26); "They shall invoke my name upon the people of Israel and I will bless them" (Num 6:27). Thirdly, one blesses by desiring: "Nor did they who passed by say: "The blessing of the Lord be upon you.’" (Os 129:8). To bless in this way is to will someone’s good and, as it were, to pray for his good. This is the way it is taken here. 998. Hence, this directive, to bless those who persecute you, shows that we must have good will even toward enemies and persecutors by desiring their welfare and praying for them: "Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you" (Mt 5:44). 493 This directive can be interpreted in one way as a precept and in another as a counsel. For we are commanded to love our enemies in such a way as not to exclude them from our general love of neighbor and from the prayer one makes for all believers. We are also obliged to show the effect of this love of one’s enemies in particular cases of critical need. Hence it says in Ex (23:4): "If you meet your enemy‘s ox or ass going astray, rescue it." But for anyone to give his enemies the benefit of his help beyond cases of manifest need or to say special prayers and indicate a feeling of love in a special way pertains to the perfection of the counsels, because it shows that a person’s love of God is so advanced that it triumphs over all human hatred. However, one who repents and seeks forgiveness should no longer be reckoned an enemy or persecutor; hence, there should be no difficulty in showing him marks of charity: "Forgive your neighbor if he has hurt you: and then your sins shall be forgiven when you pray" (Sir 28:2). 999. Secondly, he teaches that good-will should be pure, i.e., not mixed with its opposite. Hence he says: Bless and do not curse them, i.e., so bless that in no way do you curse. This is against those who bless with their mouth and curse in their heart: "They speak words of peace to their neighbor, but have evil in their hearts" (Ps 27:3). It is also against those who sometimes bless and sometimes curse, or bless some and curse others: "From the same mouth come blessing and cursing. My brethren, this ought not to be so" (Jas 2:10); "Do not return reviling for reviling" (I Pt 3:9). 1000. But the fact that many curses are found in Sacred Scripture seems to be against this. For Dt (27:26) says: "Cursed be he that does not abide in the words of this law and does not fulfill them in work." 494 The answer is that to curse [male-dicere] is to say something evil [malum dicere]. As with blessing, this can happen in three ways, namely, by asserting, by commanding and by desiring; and in each of these ways something good can be done and something evil. For something materially evil can be called evil in any of these ways. If it is called evil but has a good aspect, this is blessing rather than cursing and is not illicit. For a thing is judged more according to its form than its matter. But if someone says evil under the aspect of evil, he is speaking evil formally; hence it is altogether illicit. Both of these cases occur when someone makes known an evil by asserting it. For sometimes a person asserts that something is evil, in order to make known a necessary truth. Hence, he asserts evil under the aspect of a necessary truth, which is something good; hence it is licit. This is the way Job (3:1) is said to have cured his day, when he asserted the evil of the present life, just as the Apostle did in Eph (5:17): "Making the most of the time, because the days are evil." But sometimes a person asserts someone’s evil under the aspect of evil, namely, to detract from his good name; and this is illicit. For it is stated in I Cor (6:10): "The evil-tongued shall not possess God’s kingdom." 1001. Similarly, when one says something evil by commanding it can happen that he says something materially evil but under a good aspect. For example, it is licit for a person in authority to command that someone undergo the evil of punishment, when it is just. In this way violators of the law are cursed, i.e., justly subjected to punishment. 495 But when someone commands another’s evil unjustly, for example from hatred and revenge, such a curse is illicit: "He that curses his father or mother shall die the death" (Ex 21:17). 1002. It is the same with regard to saying something evil by desiring. For if the evil is desired under the aspect of good, for example, that through adversity a person may make spiritual progress, it is licit: "I have seen a fool with a firm root: and at once I cursed his beauty" (Jb 5:3). But if this is done from hatred and revenge, it is altogether illicit: "The Philistine cursed David by his gods" (1 Sam 17:43). 1003. Then when he says: Rejoice with those that rejoice, He teaches about concord: first, he sets out nature of concord; secondly, the obstacles to it [v. 16b; n. 1006]. 1004. Concord can be considered in two ways [cf. n. 1005]. In one way, as regards the effect it produces in reacting to good and evil. In regard to good it makes one rejoice in the good of others; hence he says: Rejoice with those that rejoice: "I am glad and rejoice with you all" (Phil 2:17). But this refers to rejoicing with one who rejoices in the good. For there are some who take joy in evil: "Some are glad when they have done evil, and rejoice in things most wicked" (Pr 2:17). In such cases one must not rejoice with others, for in I Cor (13:6) it is said of charity that "it does not rejoice over wickedness but rejoices in the truth." 496 In regard to evil the effect of concord is that it makes one grieve over another’s evil. Hence, he says: Weep with those who weep: "I wept for him who was afflicted" (Jb 30:25); "Comfort them that weep, and walk with them that mourn" (Si 7:38). For the compassion of a commiserating friend itself brings consolation in two ways: first, because it is convincing proof of friendship: "In a man’s adversity his friend is known" (Si 12:9), and that itself is a joy, namely, to know that one has a true friend. Secondly, because the condolence of a friend implies that he is offering to carry the burden which causes the sorrow, and it is easier when a burden is carried by two than by one person alone. 1005. Secondly, concord consists in unity of opinion. In regard to this he says: Live in harmony with one another, i.e., agree on the same matters: "That all of you agree and that there be no dissensions among you" (I Cor 1:10); "Complete my joy by being of the same mind" (Phil 2:2). Yet it should be noted that there are two kinds of opinion: one pertains to the intellect’s judgment about speculative matters, such as are considered in geometry and astronomy. Disagreement here does not militate against friendship or love, because love exists in the will, whereas judgments about these matters do not arise from the will but from the necessity of reason. The other opinion pertains to reason’s judgment about actions. Disagreement in these is contrary to love, because such dissension involves contrariety of will. And because faith is not only speculative but also practical inasmuch as it functions through love, as is stated in Gal (5:6), dissent from correct faith is contrary to love. 497 1006. Then when he says, not minding high things, he removes the two obstacles to concord. The first is pride which inclines one to pursue his own excellence inordinately and to refuse subjection, as the same time desiring to subject someone else and impede his excellence. From this follows discord: "Among the proud there are always quarrels" (Pr 13:10). Hence to remove this obstacle he says: not minding high things, so that you seek inordinately your own excellence: Do not be proud, but stand in awe" (Rom 11:20). But consenting to the humble, i.e., accept humble things, i.e., when it is fitting, do not refuse what seems to be lowly: "I prefer to be one of no account in the house of my God" (Ps 83:11); "Humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God" (Pt 5:6). The second obstacle to concord is over-confidence in one’s wisdom or one’s prudence, so that the opinion of others is not believed. To remove this he says: Do not be prudent in your own conceits, so that you judge as prudent only what seems so according to you: "Woe to you that are wise in your own eyes and prudent in your own conceits" (Is 5:21); "Lest you be wise in your own conceits" (Rom 11:25). 1007. Then when he says, Repay, he teaches what pertains to beneficence by excluding its contrary: first, he teaches not to do evil to another for revenge; secondly, he teachings not to do evil for the sake of defense [v. 19; n. 1011]. 1008. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he forbids revenge when he says: Repay no one evil for evil: "If I have returned evil for evil" (Ps 7:5); "Do not repay evil with evil" (I Pt 3:9). 498 But this must be understood in a formal sense, as when we spoke above of evil. For we are forbidden to return evil for evil when it is inspired by hatred or envy, so that we take pleasure in another’s evil. But if in return for the evil of guilt which someone commits a judge pronounces an evil of punishment in a just way to compensate for malice, he does, indeed, return evil materially, but formally and in itself he returns a good. Hence, when a judge hangs a criminal for murder, he does not return evil for evil but good for evil. This is the way the Apostle handed over to Satan the man guilty of incest, "for the destruction of the flesh, that his spirit may be saved" (I Cor 5:5). 1009. Secondly, he shows hat even good things must be provided for our neighbor, saying: Take thought for what is noble in the sight of all, so that you do things pleasing to men: "Give no offense to Jews or to Greeks, or to the church of God, just as I try to please all men in everything I do" (1 Cor 11:32). But this can be done properly and improperly. For if it is done for human approval, it is not proper conduct: "Beware of practicing your piety before men in order to be seen by them" (Mt 6:1). But it is proper, when it is done for the glory of God: "Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven" (Mt 5:16). 1010. Thirdly, he gives the reason for this advice. For we should refrain from returning evil and should provide good things in the sight of all, in order that we might be at peace with men; therefore, he adds: Live peaceably with all. But he qualifies this when he says: if possible. For sometimes other people’s malice prevents us from having peace with them, namely, because no peace is possible 499 with them unless we consent to their malice. Such peace, of course, is illicit: "I came not to send peace but the sword" (Mt 10:34). Another qualifier is added when he says: so far as it depends on you, i.e., even if they act against peace, we should do all in our power to preserve peace with them: "I am for peace; but when I speak, they are for war" (Ps 120:7). 1011. Then when he says, Never avenge, he shows that we should not do evil to our neighbor in vengeance. First, he presents the teaching: You should not avenge yourselves, dearly beloved, but as is said of Christ: "I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to those who pulled out the beard" (Is 50:6) and "Like a sheep that before its shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth" (Is 53:7). Hence, the Lord Himself commanded: "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also" (Mt 5:39). But, as Augustine says, the things done by holy men in the New Testament are valid examples for understanding the commands given in Scripture. For the Lord Himself, when He was struck on the cheek, did not say: "Here is the other cheek," but "If I have spoken ill, give testimony of the evil; but if well, why do you strike me." This shows that one must be prepared in the heart to offer the other cheek. For the Lord was prepared not only to offer the other cheek for man’s salvation but His whole body to be crucified. 1012. Secondly, he assigns the reason when he says: but leave it to the wrath of God, i.e., to divine judgment. As if to say: Entrust yourself to God Who can defend and vindicate you by His judgment, as it says in I Pt (5:7): "Cast all your anxieties on him, for he cares about you." 500 But this applies to cases in which no opportunity is left to us to do otherwise according to justice. But because, as it says in Dt (1:17): "Judgment is the Lord’s, "when someone authorized by a judge seeks vengeance in order to repress malice and not because of hatred, or on the authority of his superior procures his own defense, he is understood to leave matters to the wrath of God, since magistrates are God’s ministers. Hence, even Paul obtained a bodyguard against the plots of the Jews (Ac 23:12ff). 1013. Then when he says, As it is written, he proves what he had said: first, by an authority; secondly, by reason [v. 21; n. 1015]. 1014. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he proves what he said about revenge being forbidden, saying: Leave it to the wrath of God, i.e., to divine judgment, for it is written: "Vengeance is mine, I will repay, says the Lord." (Dt 32:35). Our text has this: "Vengeance is mine, and I will repay in due time"; "God the Lord of vengeance" (Ps 93:1); "The Lord is a jealous God, an avenger" (Nah 1:2). Secondly, he proves what he said about kindness to one’s enemies by an appeal an authority. First, he presents the scriptural teaching that we help enemies who are in danger of death, because this binds by a necessity of precept, as stated earlier. And this is what it says: If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him drink: "Do good to those who hate you" (Mt 5:44). Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying: for by so doing you will heap burning coals upon his head. This can be given a sinister interpretation, so that the sense would be: if you do good to him, your good will turn out evil for him, because from it he will 501 incur eternal fire by his ingratitude. But this sense is opposed to charity, against which a person would be acting, if he helped someone, so that the help would turn out evilly for him. Therefore, it must be given a good sense, namely, by doing so,, i.e., helping them in time of need, burning coals, i.e., the love of charity, of which Song 8(:6) says, "the lamps thereof are as lamps of fire and flame"; you shall heap, i.e., gather together, upon his head, i.e., on his mind. For, as Augustine says: "There is no greater incitement to love than to be the first to love. For the man is exceedingly hard who, though unwilling to bestow love, refuses to return love." 1015. Then when he says, do not be overcome by evil, he proves what he had said by reason. For it is natural to man that he wish to overcome his adversary and not be overcome by him. But that is overcome by another which is drawn to that other, as water is overcome by fire, when it is drawn to the heat of fire. Therefore, if a good man, on account of the evil done him by another, is drawn to do evil in return, the good man is overcome by the evil. If, on the other hand, on account of a favor which the good man does for his persecutor, he draws the latter to his love, the good man overcomes the evil.

1016. After showing how man should behave toward God by using the gifts of His grace [n. 953], the Apostle now shows how man could comport himself toward his neighbor. 503 First, in regard to superiors; secondly, toward all [v. 8; n. 1044]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he urges men to the subjection owed to superiors; secondly, to show the sign of subjection [v. 6; n. 1037]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he proposes his teaching; secondly, he assigns a reason [v. 1b; n. 1020]; thirdly, he draws the conclusion [v. 5; n. 1036]. 1017. In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some believers said that they should not be subject to earthly powers on account of the freedom they received from Christ, since it says in Jn (8:36): If the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed." But the freedom granted by Christ is a freedom of the spirit, by which we are set free of sin and death, as was said above (8:2): "The law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set me free from the law of sin and death." The flesh, however, remains subject to slavery, as was stated above (7:14). Therefore, the time when a man freed by Christ will not be liable to any subjection, either spiritual or carnal, will be "when Christ delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power" (I Cor 15:24). In the meantime, as long as we live in the flesh, we are subject to temporal rulers; hence it says in Eph (6:5): "Servants, obey your masters in the flesh." And that is what the Apostle says here: Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. 504 What he calls higher powers are men established in power, to whom we owe subjection according to the order of justice: "Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors as sent by him" (I Pt 2:13). 1018. And he says indefinitely higher powers so that we may subject ourselves to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they are wicked: "Be submissive to your masters, not only to the kind and gentle, cut also to the overbearing" (I Pt 2:18). 1019. The words every soul are to be taken as a synecdoche for "every man," as we find in Gen 17(:14), "That soul shall be destroyed from among his people." And he uses this figure of speech because we owe subjection to the authorities from the soul, i.e., from a pure will: "Not serving to the eye, as though pleasing men, but from the soul with a good will." 1020. Then when he says, For there is no authority, he presents the reason for this admonition: first, because subjection is honorable; secondly, because it is necessary [v. 2b; n. 1026]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents two principles; secondly, he concludes from them [v. 2; n. 1025]. 1021. First, therefore, he speaks about the source of power, saying: There is no power except from God. For whatever is said in common of God and creatures, comes to creatures from God, as in the case of wisdom: "All wisdom comes from God" (Sir 1:1). But power is 505 said of God and of men: "God does not abandon the powers, since He is powerful" (Jb 35:5). Hence, it follows that all human power is from God: "The most high rules the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he will" (Dan 4:17); "You would have no power over me, unless it had been given you from above" (Jn 19:11). 1022. But a passage in Hosea seems to be against this: "They made kings, but not through me. They set up princes, but without my knowledge" (Hos 8:4). The answer is that royal power or the power associated with any other dignity can be considered from three aspects. First, in regard to the power itself, which is from God "through whom Kings reign," as it says in Pr (8:15). Secondly, in regard to the way in which power is obtained: from this aspect, power is from God sometimes, namely, when a person obtains it rightfully, as it says in Heb (5:4): "One does not take the honor upon himself, but he is called by God, as Aaron was." But sometimes it is not from God but from a man’s perverse desire, which obtains power through ambition or some other unlawful manner: "Have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves?" (Am 6:13). Thirdly, it can be considered in regard to its use, and then it is from God sometimes, as when a person observes the precepts of divine justice in using the power granted him: "By me kings rule" (Pr 8:15). But sometimes it is not from God, as when a person uses power given to him to act against divine justice: "The kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord and his anointed" (Ps 2:2). 1023. The question arises whether the power to sin is from God. 506 The answer is that the power by which one sins is from God. For it is the same power that is employed in sinning and in doing right: but that it is directed to good is from God; that it is directed to sin is due to a defect of the creature, inasmuch as it springs from nothingness. 1024. Secondly, he states that those that exist have been instituted by God, the reason being that God made all things through His wisdom, for it says in Ps 104 (v. 24): "In wisdom hast thou made all." But it is the function of wisdom to dispose of things in order: "She reaches mightily from one end of the earth to the other, and she orders all things well" (Wis 8:1). Therefore, divine effects must be orderly: "Do you know the ordinances of the heavens" (Jb 38:33). But God has established a twofold order in His effects: one, whereby all things are ordained to Him: "The Lord has made everything for himself" (Pr 16:4); the other is that whereby divine effects are ordained one to another, as Dt (4:19) says of the sun and the moon and the stars, that He made them to serve all nations. 1025. Then when he says, therefore, he who, he draws the conclusion. For if the power of rulers is from God and nothing is from God without order, it follows that the order whereby the lower are subjected to the higher powers is form God. Therefore, he who acts against the order and resists the authority, resists what God has appointed: "They have not rejected you, but they have rejected me" (1 Sam 8:7); "He who rejects you rejects me" (Lk 10:16). But to resist the divine order is contrary to the good of virtue. Hence, whoever resists power in anything that pertains to the order of this power acts against virtue. 507 1026. Then when he says, those who resist, he shows that this subjection is not only virtuous but necessary. First he states his proposition; secondly, he proves it [v. 3; n. 1029]. 1027. He says, therefore: It has been sated that he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and this should be avoided as contrary to virtue. Yet there are many who have no love for virtue and who do not detest things contrary to virtue. Such persons must be compelled to avoid evil by punishments. In regard to this he says: Those who resist the divine ordinance will incur condemnation for acting against the order of authority. This can be understood in one way as referring to eternal damnation, which is incurred by those who refuse to be subject to authority in matters in which they should be subject. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiron, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as it says in Num (16:20). In another way it can be understood as referring to the punishments imposed by the authorities themselves: "The dread wrath of a king is like the growling of a lion; he who provokes him to anger forfeits his life" (Pr 20:2). 1028. But against this is the fact that the apostles and martyrs seem to have resisted rulers and authorities and did not receive damnation from God as a result but rather a reward. The answer is that the Apostle is now speaking of one who resists a lower power as established by God. But the divine order requires that a lower power not be obeyed in opposition to a higher one, as a duke is not obeyed against a king. And every human 508 power is set under the divine power, so that no human power should be obeyed against God, as it says in Ac (5:29): "We must obey God rather than men." 1029. Then, when he says, For rulers, he assigns the reason for what he had said. First, he presents the reason; secondly, from this reason he draws a useful teaching [v. 3b; n. 1031]; thirdly, he shows the necessity of this teaching [v. 4b; n. 1035]. 1030. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that those who resist authority will incur condemnation, for rulers, who are here called powers, are not a terror, i.e., a cause of terror, to good conduct, i.e., because of good conduct, but to bad, i.e., because of bad conduct. It seems that this should be understood with reference to the reason for establishing rulers. For the reason why rulers are established is in order that those who are not inclined by any love of virtue to avoid evil and do good, may do so by fear of punishment: "A king who sits on the throne of judgment winnows all evil with his eyes" (Pr 20:8). And according to this interpretation it says that rulers are not a terror to good conduct but to bad as regards what rulers do in virtue of their office, as Is 32(:8) says, "But the prince will devise such things as are worthy of a prince." This can also refer to evil rulers, who are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. For even though they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do good, the latter have no reason to fear; because if they endure it patiently, it turns out for their good: "Even if you do suffer for righteousness’ sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled" (I Pt 3:14). 509 From what is said here the reason can be assigned why those who resist authority incur condemnation, whether it be the punishment inflicted by rulers on those who rebel, or the damnation by which men are punished by God. For if rulers are a terror to bad conduct, it follows that those who resist their authority are acting wickedly and thus are the cause of their temporal and eternal punishment. 1031. Then when he says, Would you have no fear, he draws a useful teaching from what he had said, namely, how to avoid the terror of rulers. First, he suggests by his question that this is desirable, saying: Would you have no fear of him who is in authority? As if to say: this should appeal to a person: "As the roar of a lion, so is the terror of a king" (Pr 20:2). 1032. Secondly, he shows how to avoid this fear, saying: Do what is good. For it says in Pr (16:13): "Righteous lips are the delight of a king," and in Ps 101 (v. 6): "He who walks in the way that is blameless shall minister to me." 1033. Thirdly, he shows the effect of this, saying: If you do what is good, you will not only avoid evil but you will receive his approval. This is obvious when one considers the reason why authority is established. For it is established not only to keep us from evil conduct through fear of punishment but also to induce us to good conduct through rewards, as it says in I Pt (2:14): "Be subject to governors as sent by the emperor to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right." This is also true of evil rulers, whose unjust persecution ends in praise for those who endure it patiently: "We call those happy who were steadfast" (Jas 5:11). 1034. Fourthly, he assigns the reason, saying: For he is God’s minister for your good. This is clear in regard to the proper order of rulers. For they are under the 510 authority of God, the supreme ruler, as His ministers: "Because as ministers of his kingdom, you did not rule rightly" (Wis 6:4). But the ruler and the ministers work for the same end: "Like the magistrate of the people, so are his officials" (Sir 10:2). Therefore, just as God works for the good of those who do good, so also do rulers, if they perform their office properly. Furthermore, even wicked rulers are God’s ministers for inflicting punishments according to God’s plan; although this is not their intention: "Ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger, the staff of my fury" (Is 10:5) "But he does not so intend" (v. 7). And also because such wicked rulers sometimes afflict good men, God permitting who profit thereby; for "we know that in everything God works for the good with those who love him" (Rom 8:28). 1035. Then when he says, But if you do wrong, he shows the necessity of this teaching. For it has been stated that if you do right, you will not fear authority; but if you do wrong, be afraid, because you have reason to fear: "Destruction to evildoers" (Pr 10:29); "Wickedness is a cowardly thing, condemned by its own testimony" (Wis 17:11). Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying: for he does not bear the sword in vain. He uses language in keeping with the practice of rulers who carried the instruments of punishment as signs of their power; for example, a bundle of rods for whipping, and axes or swords for killing: "Be afraid of the sword, for wrath brings the punishment of the sword" (Jb 19:29). Thirdly, he explains the reason, saying: He carries the sword, because he is God’s minister to execute his wrath, i.e., God’s wrath, i.e., His just judgment, on the 511 wrongdoers: "Those who do evil are an abomination to kings, for the throne is established by righteousness" (Pr 16:12). From this it is clear that it is not only lawful but meritorious for rulers to execute vengeance on the wicked, when it is done out of zeal for justice. 1036. Then when he says, therefore, one must be subject, he draws the main conclusion, saying: Therefore, i.e., for the reasons given, one must be subject to rulers of necessity, namely, because this is necessary for salvation, or be subject voluntarily to the necessity whereby the ruler’s power inclines you to do right of necessity; not only to avoid God’s wrath, which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists authority resists what God has appointed: "Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities" (*** 3:1). 1037. Then when he says, for the same reason, he urges men to show the sign of their subjection to authority: first, he mentions the sign of subjection; secondly, he urges them to render the sign of subjection [v. 7; n. 1042]. 1038. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he mentions the signs of subjection, saying: For the same reason you also pay taxes, i.e., because you are subject, you should pay taxes as a sign of that subjection. Therefore, in a complaining way it says in Lam (1:1); "She that was a princess among the cities has become a vassal." 1039. Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying; for the authorities are the minister of God, attending, on behalf of God and the people, to this very thing, i.e., to receiving tribute. 512 As if to say: Everyone should make a living from his ministry, for it says in I Cor ((:7): "Who tends a flock without getting some of the milk?" And therefore, since our rulers minister to God in governing, they should receive taxes from the people as wages for their ministry and should not look upon it as a reward. For the special reward of a ruler is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in book five of the Ethics. When this does not satisfy him, he becomes a tyrant. But this should not be understood as referring only to human praise or honor, because such a reward would be futile, but to divine praise and honor, which is bestowed on those who rule well: "O monarchs over the people, honor wisdom, that you may reign forever" (Wis 6:21). Furthermore, they receive these taxes as sustenance, and rulers labor for the peace of all. Hence it says in 2 Tim (2:1): "I urge that supplications be made for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a quiet and peaceful life"; "Pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow" (Bar 1:11). Clerics are free of this debt because of a privilege granted by rulers, which is in fact equitable by nature. Even among the Gentiles those who were devoted to divine things were free from taxation. For we read in Gen 47(:20-22) that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the entire land of Egypt "except the land of the priests, which had been given them by the king, and to whom also a certain allowance of food was given out of the public stores." And further down it says in the whole land of Egypt, the fifth part of the harvests was paid except for in the land of the priests, which was free from this condition. But this is also equitable, because just as kings have care of the public good in temporal affairs, so God’s ministers in spiritual matters. And so by ministering to God in 513 spiritual matters, they are making a return to the king for his labor in procuring a peaceful life for them. 1041. But it should be noted that although he says that taxes are owed to rulers as a wage for their labors, rulers can sin in two ways by accepting taxes. First, if they do not procure the people’s welfare but are intent only on seizing their goods. Hence it says in Ez (34:si3): "You eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings, but you do not feed the sheep." Secondly, if they violently take more than the law permits and more than the people can bear. Hence it says in Mic (3:1): "Hear, you heads of Jacob and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not you who tear the skin from my people, and their flesh from their bones?" 1042. Then when he says, Pay all, he admonishes them to render the above-mentioned sign of subjection. First, in general, saying: Inasmuch as taxes are owed to rulers, as to God’s ministers, pay all of them their dues. From this it is clear that justice requires subjects to render rulers their due: "To the king was brought one who owed him ten thousand talents" (Mt 18:24); "Render, therefore, to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s" (Mt 22:21). Secondly, he specifies debts that are paid publicly, saying: taxes to whom taxes are due, for these are paid to the ruler that he might govern the country in peace and quiet: "He saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant" (Gen 49:15). Revenue to whom revenue is due. This is paid to the ruler in certain places as 514 tolls, for the repair of roads and for safe travel. Or they are the expenses incurred, when the ruler travels through his country. Secondly, he sets out those things which should be rendered interiorly. Here it should be noted that a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is lord and uses his power to prevent evil men from doing evil: "If I am the Lord, where is my fear?" (Mal 1:6). Hence he says: fear to whom fear is due: "My son, fear the Lord and the king" (Pr 24:21). But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor: "If I am a father, where is my honor?" (Mal 1:6). Therefore, he adds: honor to whom honor is due: "Honor the king (I Pt 2:17). The opposite view is expressed in Lev (19:5): "You shall not defer to the powerful." But this should be interpreted as forbidding a person to deviate from justice to benefit the powerful. Hence it continues: "but in justice shall you judge your neighbor."

1044. Having shown how believers should observe justice toward superiors [n. 1016], the Apostle now shows how they should behave toward everyone generally. In regard to this he does two things: first, he states his intention; secondly, he gives a reason [v. 8b; n. 1048]. 1045. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that you must pay your debts to all, not in part but entirely. And that is what he says: Owe no one anything. As if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely, one anything. As if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely, that nothing still owing remains. And this for two reasons: first, because sin is committed in delaying to pay, as long as a person unjustly holds back what belongs to another. Hence it says in Lev (19:13): "The wages of a hired servant shall not remain with you all night until the morning." And the same is true of other debts. Secondly, because as long as a person owes, he is in a certain sense a slave and is obligated to the one to who he owes: "The borrower is the slave of the lender" (Pr 22:7). 1046. But there are some debts from which a man can never absolve himself. This happens in two ways: in one way on account of the excellence of the benefit for which equal payment cannot be made, as the Philosopher says of honor owed to God or parents, as it says in Ps 116 (v. 12): "What shall I render to the Lord for all his bounty to me?" In another way on account of the debt’s cause, which always remains; or even because what is paid is never terminated but always increases as one pays. 516 1047. For these reasons the debt of fraternal love is paid in such a way that it is always owing. First, because we owe love to our neighbor on account of God, Whom we can never recompense sufficiently. For it says in I Jn (4:2): "This commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also." Secondly, because the cause of love always remains, namely, being alike in nature and in grace: "Every animal loves its like, and every person his neighbor" (Sir 13:15). Thirdly, the cause love does not diminish but grows by loving: "It is my prayer that your love may abound more and more" (Phil 1:9). Therefore, he says: except to love one another, because the debt of love is paid once in such a way that it always remains under the debt of a precept: "This is my commandment, that you love one another" (Jn 15:12). 1048. Then when he says, He who loves his neighbor, he assigns the reason for the statement that we are never released from the debt of love, namely, because the whole fulfillment of the Law consists in love. Hence he does three things in regard to this: first, he states his proposition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 9; n. 1050]; thirdly, he draws the conclusion intended [v. 10b; n. 1059]. 1049. First, therefore, he says: The reason why we cannot expect to free ourselves from the debut of love, as we do from other debts is that he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law, i.e., the whole fulfillment of the Law depends on love of neighbor. 517 But this does not seem to be true. For it says in I Tim (1:5): "The end of the precept is love." For a thing is made perfect when it attains its end; therefore, the whole perfection of the Law consists in love. But love as two acts, namely, the love of God and the love of neighbor; hence the Lord says in Mt (22:40) that the whole law and the prophets depend on the two precepts of love: one of which is concerned with the love of God and the other with the love of neighbor. Therefore, it does not seem that one who loves his neighbor fulfills the whole Law. The answer is that love of neighbor pertains to love and fulfills the Law, when it is a love by which the neighbor is loved for God. So the love of God is included in the love of neighbor, just as the cause is included in its effect. For it says in I Jn (4:21): "this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also." Conversely, love of neighbor is included in love of God, as the effect in its cause; hence it says in the same place: "If anyone says, ‘I love God,’ and hates his brother, he is a liar." That is why in Sacred Scripture sometimes mention is made only of the love of God, as though it is enough for salvation, as in Dt (10:12): "And now, Israel, what does the Lord you God require of you, but to fear the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to love him"; and sometimes mention is made of love of neighbor: "This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you" (Jn 15:12). 1050. Then when he says, the commandments, he proves his proposition: first, by induction; secondly, by use of a middle term in a syllogism [v. 10; n. 1058]. 518 1051. In regard to the first he proceeds inductively by enumerating certain precepts which fulfill the love of neighbor. And because the three precepts of the first tablet are more directly ordained to the love of God, he does not mention them; although they, too, are fulfilled in the love of neighbor, insofar as the love of God is included in the love of neighbor. But he enumerates the commands of the second tablet, omitting only the affirmative precept about honor to parents. By this it is understood that we should pay to all whatever we owe. 1052. He lists the negative precepts, which forbid a person to do evil to his neighbor. And this for two reasons. First, because the negative precepts are more universal both as to time and as to persons. As to time, because the negative precepts oblige always and at every moment. For there is no time when one may steal or commit adultery. Affirmative precepts, on the other hand, oblige always but not at every moment, but at certain times and places: for a man is not obliged to honor his parents every minute of the day, but at certain times and places. Negative precepts are more universal as to persons, because no man may be harmed. Secondly, because they are more obviously observed by love of neighbor than are the affirmative. For a person who loves another, rather refrains from harming him than gives him benefits, which he is sometimes unable to give. 1053. But a person does injury to his neighbor in three ways: by action, by word and by desire. 519 He does injury by action in three ways: first, against the neighbor’s person, and this is forbidden when he says: You shall not kill. This also forbids any injury against the neighbor’s person: "No murderer has eternal life abiding in him" I Jn (3:15). Secondly, against a person’s wife; and this is forbidden when he says: You hall not commit adultery. This also forbids fornication and any unlawful use of the genital organs: "God will judge fornicators and adulterers" (Heb 13:4). Thirdly, against one’s external goods, and this is forbidden when he says: You shall not steal. This also forbids any unjust taking of what belongs to another, either by force or by deceit: "Everyone who steals will be judged" (Zech 5:3). 1054. Injury committed by word against one’s neighbor is forbidden when he says: You shall not bear false witness. This is forbidden not only in court cases but also outside, whether in the form of detraction or of insults: "The false witness will not go unpunished, and one who speaks lies will not escape (Pr 19:5). Injury committed only by desire against one’s neighbor is forbidden when he says: You shall not covet your neighbor’s good; and this also forbids coveting another’s wife: "For I would not have known covetousness" to be a sin, "if the law had not said, ‘You shall not covet.’" (Rom 7:7). 1055. Having listed a number of precepts, he combines all others in one general precept, saying: and any other commandment, affirmative or negative, referring to God or to neighbor, is summed up, i.e., fulfilled, in this sentence: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. 1056. When he says, your neighbor, the reference is to all men and also the good angels, as Augustine says. For a neighbor is anyone who shows mercy to another, as it 520 says in Lk (10:36): "Which of these three, do you think, proved neighbor to the men who fell among robbers? He said: ‘The one who showed mercy on him.’" And because a neighbor is neighbor to a neighbor, the consequence is that even a person shown mercy by another is said to be his neighbor. But the good angels show mercy to us; and we should show mercy to all men and receive it from them, when necessary. Hence it is clear that the good angels and all men are our neighbors, because the happiness toward which we are tending is already theirs, or they are tending toward it with us. From this reason it is clear that devils are not our neighbors and that we are not commanded to love them, because they are entirely excluded from the love of God and are not included in the list of neighbors but of enemies. 1057. The phrase, as yourself, does not refer to equality of love, as though a person were bound to love his neighbor as much as himself. For this would be against the ordering of charity, by which a person is obliged to take more care of his own salvation than that of others: "He put love in order in me" (S of S 2:4). It refers, rather to a similarity of love, namely, that we should love our neighbor similarly as ourselves. And this in three ways: first, as to the end of love, namely, that we love ourselves and our neighbor for the sake of God. Secondly, as to the form of love, namely, just as a person loves himself as willing good for himself, so he should love his neighbor by willing good things for him. But one who loves his neighbor in order to acquire some utility or love from him does not will good for his neighbor but wants to obtain a good for himself from his neighbor. This is the way a man is said to love irrational creatures, such as wine or a horse, namely, to use them. Thirdly, as to the effect of love, namely, that he 521 relieve the need of his neighbor, as he relieves his own; and that he do nothing unlawful out of love for his neighbor any more than he does out of love for himself. 1058. Then when he says, Love does not wrong to a neighbor, he clarifies his proposistion with the following syllogism: One who loves his neighbor does no evil to him. But the aim of every precept of the Law is abstention from evil. Therefore, one who loves his neighbor fulfills the Law. That love of neighbor does no evil is gathered from I Cor (13:4): "Love does not work injury." No matter how evil is taken here, whether for evil acts or omissions, it could refer not only to negative precepts but also to affirmative. But inasmuch as love of neighbor includes love of God, it is understood that love of neighbor excludes evil both against one’s neighbor and against God. Thus, even the precepts of the first tablet are included. 1059. Finally, he draws the conclusion mainly intended, saying: Therefore, love is the fulfilling of the law, i.e., the Law is fulfilled and made perfect by love; (Si 14:16), "Above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony" (Col 3:14).

1060. After showing how man should behave in a pious manner toward God by using His gifts properly and paying his neighbor the debts owed him, the Apostle now shows how he should act with probity in regard to himself. With respect to this he does two things: first, he proposes the suitability of the time; secondly, he exhorts them to virtuous works [v. 12b; n. 1070]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he mentions the suitability of the time; secondly, he assigns the reason [v. 11b; n. 1063]; thirdly, he employs a figure of speech [v. 12; n. 1066]. 1061. First, therefore he says: We have stated what you should do. And you should do it not only for the reasons already given, but also because you know what hour it is, i.e., you ought to consider the nature of the present here, because as it says in Ec (8:6): "Every matter has its time and way"; "Even the stork in the heavens knows her times; and the turtledove, swallow and crane keep the time of their coming; but my people know not the ordinance of the Lord" (Jer 8:70). 523 1062. He shows what the time is suitable for, when he says: it is full time now for you to wake from sleep. This is not a reference to the sleep of nature, sometimes called death, as in I Th (4:13): "We would not have you ignorant concerning those who are asleep" and sometimes the repose of the animal powers, as in Jn (11:12): "If he is asleep, he will recover." Nor is it a reference to the sleep of grace, sometimes called the repose of eternal glory, as in Ps 4 (v. 9): "In peace I will lie down and sleep" and sometimes the rest of contemplation even in this life: "I slept, but my heart was awake" (Song 5:3). But it is a reference to the sleep of guilt, as in Eph (5:14): "Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead," or to the sleep of negligence, as in Pr (6:9): "How long will you lie there, O sluggard?" Therefore, it is full time now to wake from the sleep of guilt by doing penance: "Awake after you have rested" (Ps 127:2) and from the sleep of negligence by taking care to act properly: "Arise, O princes, oil the shield!" (Is 21:5); "Let not the hour for rising sadden you." (Sir 32:15). 1063. Then when he says, For salvation, he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying: For salvation is nearer to us now than when we first believed. The Apostle is referring to the salvation of eternal life about which it is said: "My salvation will be for ever" (Is 51:8). Man is ordained to this salvation, fist of all, by faith: "He that believes and is baptized will be saved" (Mk 16:16). But man gets closer and closer to it by good works and increased love: "Draw near to God and he will draw near to you" (Jas 4:8). This, therefore, is what the Apostle says: It is full time now for you to rise from sleep, for now, when we have made progress by good works and increased love, our 524 salvation, namely of eternal life, is nearer than when we first believed, i.e., than when we originally received the faith. 1064. This nearness can be understood in two ways. First, in regard to time, by which holy men, as they make progress in good works, draw closer to the end of this life, after which they receive their reward. The other is the nearness of preparation, because by increased love and good works performed, a man is prepared for that salvation: "Those who were ready went in with him to the marriage feast" (Mt 25:10). 1065. But inasmuch as the Church reads these words during Advent, they seemed to refer to the salvation which Christ worked during His first coming. Accordingly, we can understand the Apostle speaking in place of all believers since the beginning of the world. For as the time of Christ’s incarnation drew near, and the predictions of the prophets grew in number, it could be said: "Our salvation," namely, Christ "is nearer now than when we believed," i.e., when men in the very beginning stated to believe in the future coming of Christ: "Soon my salvation will come and my deliverance be revealed" (Is 56:11). They can also be taken to refer to the time of mercy, when one begins willing to depart from past sins. For at that time he is closer to his salvation than previously, when he had a dead faith: "Resist the devil and he will flee from you. Draw near to God and he will draw near to you" (Jas 4:7). 1066. Then when he says, the night is far gone, he uses a figure of speech to clarify his proposition. The import is that the entire time of the present life is compared to night on account of the darkness of ignorance with which the present life is 525 encumbered. "We are swallowed up in darkness" (Jb 33:4). Isaiah says of this night: "My soul yearns for thee in the night" (26:9). But the state of future happiness is compared to day on account of God’s splendor with which the saints are enlightened: "the sun shall be no more your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you by night, but he Lord will be your everlasting light" (Is 60:19). This day is referred to in Ps 118 (v. 24): "This is the day which the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it." 1067. It can also be understood that the state of guilt is being compared to night on account of the darkness of guilt. About this darkness Ps 82 (v. 5) says: "They have neither knowledge nor understanding; they walk about in darkness." About this night Wis (17:21) says: "Over those men alone heavy night was spread, an image of the darkness that was destined to receive them." But day is called the state of grace on account of the light of spiritual understanding which the righteous have, but the wicked lack: "Light dawns for the righteous" (Ps 97:11); "The light of righteousness did not shine on us" (Wis 5:6). 1068. Or it can be understood that the time before Christ’s incarnation is being compared to night, because it was not yet clear but wrapped in darkness: "We have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a lamp shining in a dark place" (2 Pt 1:19). About this night it says in Is (21:11): "Watchman, what of the night?" Hence, just as shadows appear at night, so during that time the practices of the Law were in vogue, but "these were only a shadow of what is to come" (Col 2:17). 526 But the time after Christ’s incarnation is compared to day on account of the power of the spiritual sun in the world: "But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness shall shine" (Mal 4:2). Hence the Lord says: "I must work the works of him who sent me, while it is day" (Jn 9:4); then he adds: "As long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world." 1069. The saying, the night is far gone, can be taken for any of the three nights mentioned. For a large part of the life span of those to whom he was writing was already far gone; the night of guilt had passed, as had the period of the Law before Christ. But it seems that the saying, the day is at hand, must be understood as referring to the day of future glory, which was at hand for the believers in Christ to whom he was writing, although it had not yet arrived for them. In keeping with the foregoing explanation, the time of Christ’s grace, although it had already arrived as regards the passage of time, is nonetheless described as drawing near through faith and devotion; just as it also says in Phil (4:5): "The Lord is near," and in Ps 145 (v. 18): "The Lord is near to all who call upon him." It can also apply to those who begin to repent of their sins; for such persons the day of grace is at hand. 1070. Then when he says, Let us then cast off, he concludes the exhortation to an honorable life. First he gives the exhortation; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 13b; n. 1074]. In regard to an honorable life he touches on three things. 527 1071. First, the removal of vices, as he concludes: If the night is gone, let us cast off the works of darkness, because, as it says in Ec (8:6): "Every matter has its time and way." Hence, when the night is gone, the deeds of the night should cease. Here the works of sin are called works of darkness: first, because in themselves they lack the light of reason with which man’s works should be illumined: "The wise man has eyes in his head, but the fool walks in darkness" (Ec 2:14); secondly, they are performed in the dark: "The eye of the adulterer waits for the twilight" (Jb 24:15); thirdly, because by them a person is brought to darkness: "Cast them into the darkness outside" (Mt 22:13). 1072. Secondly, he summons them to put on the virtues. As if to say: Since the day is at hand, be dressed as suits the day and put on the armor of light, i.e., the virtues, which are called armor because they protect us: "Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil" (Eph 6:11). They are called the armor of light, because they are decorated and perfected by the light of reason; hence it says in Pr (4:18): "The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn"’; and because they are tested by light: "He who does what is true comes to the light" (Jn 3:2); and because others are enlightened by virtuous acts: "So let your light shine before men" (Mt 5:16). 1073. Thirdly, he urges them to use the virtues and make progress when he says: Let us conduct ourselves becomingly as in the day. For these two things seem suited to the day: first, becoming conduct, for in the day everyone tries to present himself becomingly before others. But not so in the night. Hence, it says in I Th (5:7): "For those who sleep sleep at night, and those who get drunk get drunk at night. But since we 528 belong to the day, let us be sober"’ hence it says in I Cor (14:40): "Let all things be done decently and in order." Secondly, man walks in the day not at night; hence it says in Jn (11:10): "If anyone walks in the night, he stumbles." Therefore, because it is day, we should walk, i.e., advance from good to better: "Walk while you have the light" (Jn 12:35). 1074. Then when he says, not in reveling, he explains what he had said. First, he explains how the works of darkness are to be cast off. These are sinful works, some of which he mentions. First, he mentions those which pertain to the corruption of the concupiscible appetite, whose corruption is intemperance in regard to pleasures of touch and to food. First, therefore, he excludes intemperate use of food when he says: not in reveling: "Be not among wine bibbers or among gluttonous eaters of meat" (Pr 23:20). This, of course, can be a mortal sin from the fact hat according to the Law one is condemned to death for this sin. For it is said of a stubborn son: "This our son is stubborn and rebellious: he is a glutton and drunkard. Then they shall stone him to death with stones" (Dt 21:22). One is said to pass the time in reveling, not if he eats with the magnificence that accords with his state, as King Ahasuerus commanded a splendid banquet to be prepared in honor of Esther, when she was made queen (Est 2:18), but when he does this beyond the limits of his state, and especially if his main interest centers on this, as those about whom it is said: "Such persons do not serve our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly" (Rom 16:18); "Their god is their belly" (Phil 3:19). 529 1075. Secondly, he excludes intemperance in drink, when he adds: and drunkenness, which refers to excessive drinking, which places a man outside the bounds of reason: "Wine created to make men glad, not drunk" (Sir 31:27). It should be noted that drunkenness is a mortal sin ex suo genere, namely when a person gets drunk on purpose, because he seems to prefer the pleasure of wine to the full use of reason. Hence it says in Is (5:22): "Woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink." But if one gets drunk unintentionally, for example, because he was not aware of the strength of the wine or because he did not suspect he would get drunk on such wine, it is not a mortal sin, because he did not get drunk on purpose but accidentally. However, this cannot happen with persons who get drunk frequently. Hence, Augustine says that drunkenness is a mortal sin, if it is a frequent occurrence. 1076. Thirdly, he excludes intemperance in regard to bodily rest when he says: not in debauchery [literally: not in beds], i.e., not in excessive sleep, which he fittingly forbids after reveling and drunkenness, because it follows from them. Furthermore, there can be mortal sin in this, when for the sake of bodily rest and sleep, a person neglects what he ought to do and is inclined to commit evil deeds: "Woe to those who devise wickedness and work evil upon their beds!" (Mic 2:1). The Apostle’s words can also refer to the trappings of lust. Hence the harlot is quoted as saying: "I have perfumed by bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon" (Pr 7:17). 1077. Therefore, fourthly, he fittingly excludes intemperance in regard to sex when he says: and licentiousness, i.e., venereal actions which are called shameful, because they do not avoid what is especially shameful and worthy of confusion: both 530 36 See Aristotle’s Ethics, book 2, chapter 8. because all pleasures of touch, gluttony and lust are common to us and brutes, so that one who pursues them inordinately becomes bestial; and because it is especially in venereal acts that man’s reason is totally absorbed by pleasure to such an extent that he cannot understand, as the Philosopher says in the Ethics.36 Hence it says in Hos(4:11): "Harlotry and drunkenness and wine take away the understanding"; "They did not repent over their licentiousness and fornication and uncleanness" (Rev 9:21). 1078. Then he excludes those sins which pertain to the corruption of the irascible appetite when he says: not in contentions. Contention, as Ambrose says, is an attack on the truth, performed with confident shouting. It is also possible that these words forbid all quarreling, not only in words but also in deeds, which very frequently begin with words: "It is an honor for a man to keep aloof from strife" (Pr 20:3). Contention generally arises from envy; therefore he adds: and jealousy. Hence it says in Jas (3:16): "Where jealousy and selfish ambitions exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice. 1079. Secondly, he explains how we should put on the armor of light, saying: But put on the Lord Jesus Christ in Whom all the virtues were present most abundantly according to Is (4:1): "Seven women shall take hold of one man." We put on Jesus Christ, first, by receiving the sacrament: "All you who have been baptized in Christ have put on Christ" (Gal 3:27). Secondly, by imitation. For a person who imitates Christ is said to put on Christ, because, just as a man is covered by a garment and is seen under its color, so in one who imitates Christ the works of Christ appear. Therefore, we put on the armor of light, when we put on Christ. 531 1080. Thirdly, he explains what it is to walk becomingly as in the day when he says: make no provision for the flesh to gratify its desires. For the beauty of becoming conduct lies in the fact that man does not prefer the flesh to the spirit but the spirit to the flesh: "We are not debtors to the flesh that we should live according to the flesh" (Rom 8:12).