TRV
Study This Verse
Public-domain commentary
Matthew Henry
From his Commentary on the Whole Bible. Henry comments on passages, not single verses — this entry covers Leviticus 11:9–19.
Here is, 1. A general rule concerning fishes, which were clean and which not. All that had fins and scales they might eat, and only those odd sorts of water-animals that have not were forbidden, Lev 11:9, Lev 11:10. The ancients accounted fish the most delicate food (so far were they from allowing it on fasting-days, or making it an instance of mortification to eat fish); therefore God did not lay much restraint upon his people in them; for he is a Master that allows his servants not only for necessity but for delight. Concerning the prohibited fish it is said, They shall be an abomination to you (Lev 11:10-12), that is, "You shall count them unclean, and not only not eat of them, but keep at a distance from them." Note, Whatever is unclean should be to us an abomination; touch not the unclean thing. But observe, It was to be an abomination only to Jews; the neighbouring nations were under none of these obligations, nor are these things to be an abomination to us Christians. The Jews were honoured with peculiar privileges, and therefore, lest they should be proud of those, Transeunt cum onere - They were likewise laid under peculiar restraints. Thus God's spiritual Israel, as they are dignified above others by the gospel-covenant of adoption and friendship, so they must be mortified more than others by the gospel-commands of self-denial and bearing the cross. 2. Concerning fowls here is no general rule given, but a particular enumeration of those fowls that they must abstain from as unclean, which implies an allowance of all others. The critics here have their hands full to find out what is the true signification of the Hebrew words here used, some of which still remain uncertain, some sorts of fowls being peculiar to some countries. Were the law in force now, we should be concerned to know with certainty what are prohibited by it; and perhaps if we did, and were better acquainted with the nature of the fowls here mentioned, we should admire the knowledge of Adam, in giving them names expressive of their natures, Gen 2:20. But the law being repealed, and the learning in a great measure lost, it is sufficient for us to observe that of the fowls here forbidden, (1.) Some are birds of prey, as the eagle, vulture, etc., and God would have his people to abhor every thing that is barbarous and cruel, and not to live by blood and rapine. Doves that are preyed upon were fit to be food for man and offerings to God; but kites and hawks that prey upon them must be looked upon as an abomination to God and man; for the condition of those that are persecuted for righteousness' sake appears to an eye of faith every way better than that of their persecutors. (2.) Others of them are solitary birds, that abide in dark and desolate places, as the owl and the pelican (Psa 102:6), and the cormorant and raven (Isa 34:11); for God's Israel should not be a melancholy people, nor affect sadness and constant solitude. (3.) Others of them feed upon that which is impure, as the stork on serpents, others of them on worms; and we must not only abstain from all impurity ourselves, but from communion with those that allow themselves in it. (4.) Others of them were used by the Egyptians and other Gentiles in their divinations. Some birds were reckoned fortunate, others ominous; and their soothsayers had great regard to the flights of these birds, all which therefore must be an abomination to God's people, who must not learn the way of the heathen.
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Summary
Leviticus 11:16 presents a specific enumeration of birds deemed "unclean" for consumption by the Israelites, including the owl, the night hawk, the cuckoo, and all varieties of hawks. This verse is an integral part of God's comprehensive dietary laws, meticulously detailed through Moses, which served to distinguish Israel as a holy people set apart for the Lord. These regulations were not arbitrary but were divinely ordained to emphasize principles of purity, obedience, and discernment, thereby reinforcing their unique covenant relationship with God and their consecrated identity among the nations.
Context
Literary Context
Leviticus 11 is a pivotal chapter within the book of Leviticus, which primarily delineates the divine laws concerning holiness, worship, and ritual purity for the Israelite community. This chapter specifically outlines the dietary regulations, meticulously categorizing animals, birds, fish, and creeping things as either "clean" (permissible) or "unclean" (forbidden). The chapter begins with general principles (verses 1-8) concerning land animals and then transitions to aquatic creatures (verses 9-12). Leviticus 11:13-19 focuses intently on birds, listing twenty specific types considered unclean, with verse 16 directly continuing this prohibited avian catalog. The chapter culminates in verses 44-47 with a profound theological summary, reiterating God's foundational command for Israel to "be holy, for I am holy," underscoring that these dietary laws were not mere arbitrary rules but served as tangible, daily expressions of their consecrated identity and their distinction from surrounding peoples.
Historical & Cultural Context
The giving of these elaborate dietary laws occurred at Mount Sinai, shortly after Israel's miraculous deliverance from Egyptian bondage, serving to solidify their identity as a unique nation under God's covenant. While other ancient Near Eastern cultures possessed various dietary restrictions, Israel's laws were distinct in their explicit divine origin and their direct connection to a theology of holiness. The categorization of certain animals as "unclean" frequently included predators, scavengers, or animals associated with pagan religious practices, which were considered antithetical to the purity required for the worship of Yahweh. Birds like owls and hawks, being predatory, nocturnal, or scavengers, were often viewed with suspicion, associated with dark omens, or even worshipped in various ancient pagan cultures. Their inclusion in the "unclean" list for Israel reinforced a crucial separation from such associations and a steadfast commitment to a life of ritual and moral purity. These regulations provided a concrete, daily means for the Israelites to embody their calling to be a "kingdom of priests and a holy nation" as described in Exodus 19:6.
Key Themes
Leviticus 11:16, embedded within the broader dietary laws, contributes significantly to several overarching themes in Leviticus and the Pentateuch. Foremost among these is the theme of Holiness and Separation. God, as a holy God, calls His people to reflect His character by being holy themselves, which necessitates a clear distinction from the common and defiling practices of the surrounding nations. The dietary laws served as a constant, tangible reminder of this consecrated status. Another key theme is Obedience as an Expression of Covenant Loyalty. Adherence to these specific and detailed commands demonstrated Israel's faithfulness to their covenant with Yahweh. Furthermore, the concept of Discernment is paramount; the laws compelled the Israelites to differentiate between clean and unclean, teaching them to apply divine wisdom to every aspect of life, including what they consumed. This distinction extended beyond food to moral and spiritual purity, preparing them for a deeper understanding of God's righteous standards. The detailed nature of the laws also highlights God's Sovereignty and Authority over all creation and over His people's lives, even in seemingly mundane matters like diet. These themes are echoed throughout the Pentateuch, particularly in Deuteronomy 14, which reiterates similar dietary guidelines.
Exposition and Analysis
Key Word Analysis
While the precise identification of all birds in Leviticus 11 remains a subject of scholarly debate, the term yaʻănâh (H3284) is often associated with the ostrich, but in the context of this list of unclean birds, it is understood as a type of owl. This association likely stems from its nocturnal habits, its mournful cry, or its dwelling in desolate places, all of which could contribute to its classification as ritually impure. Its inclusion signifies a bird considered unfit for consumption by God's holy people.
The Hebrew term tachmâç (H8464) is derived from a root meaning "violence" or "to do violence." This suggests a bird characterized by its aggressive or predatory nature. While its exact species is uncertain, it is generally understood to be a type of nocturnal bird of prey, possibly an owl or a swift. Its violent disposition or association with darkness and predation likely contributed to its designation as an unclean animal, reinforcing the principle of separation from that which is predatory or associated with the unseen and potentially malevolent.
The word mîyn (H4327) signifies a "sort" or "species," indicating that the prohibition extends beyond the explicitly named "hawk" to encompass all varieties or types within that broader category. This phrase, "after his kind," appears frequently in the creation account (e.g., Genesis 1:11), denoting distinct biological categories. In the context of the dietary laws, its use emphasizes the comprehensive and inclusive nature of the prohibition, ensuring that no related species of hawk would be considered permissible.
Verse Breakdown
"And the owl,"
This clause introduces the first of four specific birds listed in this verse as forbidden for consumption. The owl, often a nocturnal predator or scavenger, is consistently enumerated among the unclean birds in biblical texts, highlighting its separation from the dietary norms established for a holy people. Its inclusion underscores the principle of avoiding animals associated with darkness, predation, or desolation.
"and the night hawk,"
Following the owl, the "night hawk" (or another type of owl/nocturnal bird, as discussed in the Key Word Analysis) continues the enumeration of birds associated with darkness or predatory behavior. The repetition of such birds emphasizes the comprehensive nature of the prohibition against creatures that embody characteristics deemed incompatible with the purity God required of His people.
"and the cuckow,"
The inclusion of the cuckoo (or a related bird, possibly a gull or a swift, depending on the precise translation of shachaph (H7828)) further expands the list of forbidden avian species. This demonstrates that the prohibition was not limited exclusively to obvious predators but extended to various birds deemed unfit for reasons that may have included their diet (e.g., scavengers), their habits, or their general association with impurity in the ancient Near East.
"and the hawk after his kind,"
This final phrase is particularly significant as it indicates a general prohibition against all species or varieties of hawks. Hawks are quintessential birds of prey, known for their predatory nature and often for scavenging. This aligns with the broader pattern of unclean birds being those that consume other animals or carrion. The phrase "after his kind" suggests a broader category, encompassing all similar birds within the hawk family, signifying a principle rather than just a finite list of individual species.
Literary Devices
Leviticus 11:16, as an integral part of a larger catalog of forbidden animals, primarily employs Enumeration, systematically listing individual items (specific birds) to create a comprehensive and unambiguous catalog of what is forbidden. This detailed listing serves to remove any potential ambiguity and provides clear, prescriptive guidelines for the Israelites regarding their diet. The concluding phrase, "after his kind," demonstrates Categorization, indicating that the prohibition extends beyond the explicitly named species to all similar types within that biological family, establishing a broader principle rather than merely isolated examples. The entire chapter, including this verse, is a prime example of Legal Language, characterized by its prescriptive, declarative, and authoritative tone, which is typical of covenant law given by God. Furthermore, the repeated use of the conjunction "and" (Polysyndeton) linking each bird in the list (e.g., "and the owl, and the night hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk...") gives the enumeration a deliberate, exhaustive quality, emphasizing the thoroughness and divine authority behind God's commands regarding purity.
Theological and Thematic Connections
Leviticus 11:16, situated within the broader context of the Mosaic dietary laws, underscores the profound theological truth that God's people are called to be holy, just as He is holy. These regulations were not arbitrary cultural norms but served as a tangible means of expressing and maintaining Israel's distinct identity as a covenant nation. By adhering to these laws, the Israelites visually and practically demonstrated their separation from the common, often idolatrous, practices of the surrounding pagan nations, thereby reinforcing their unique and exclusive relationship with Yahweh. The pervasive distinction between "clean" and "unclean" was a foundational theme throughout the Old Testament, serving as a pedagogical tool to teach Israel about the absolute purity of God's nature and the corresponding necessity of their own consecrated living in every sphere of life, including their diet. This divine call to holiness is intrinsic to God's character and His fervent desire for His people to reflect His glory.
Reflection and Application
While the specific dietary restrictions of Leviticus 11 are no longer binding on New Covenant believers, the enduring principles of holiness, discernment, and living a life set apart for God remain profoundly relevant for followers of Christ today. This passage challenges us to consider what we "consume" in a broader, spiritual sense—not merely physical food, but also the influences, entertainment, relationships, and thoughts that shape our character and worldview. Just as the Israelites were called to distinguish between clean and unclean animals, we are called to exercise spiritual discernment, carefully choosing what is spiritually nourishing, edifying, and honoring to God, and actively rejecting what defiles, distracts, or compromises our walk with Him. Our lives are to be a living testimony, reflecting God's character, demonstrating His purity and truth in a world that often embraces impurity and falsehood. This means actively pursuing righteousness, cultivating a sanctified mind, and avoiding anything that would hinder our witness or impede our spiritual growth, living as "living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God, which is your spiritual worship," as exhorted in Romans 12:1.
Questions for Reflection
FAQ
Why were these specific birds, like owls and hawks, considered unclean?
The precise reasons for each specific animal's inclusion on the "unclean" list are not explicitly stated in the biblical text, but general patterns emerge from the categories of forbidden creatures. Birds like owls and hawks are typically predatory or scavenging birds. In ancient Israel, animals that consumed carrion (dead animals) or were birds of prey were often associated with impurity, death, or the shedding of blood, which were antithetical to the life-giving and pure nature of God. Their inclusion underscored the Israelites' separation from the practices of surrounding nations and reinforced a broader concept of ritual purity that touched every aspect of their lives, teaching them about the sacredness of life and the dangers of defilement.
Are these dietary laws still applicable to Christians today?
No, the specific dietary laws of Leviticus 11, including the prohibition of certain birds, are generally not considered binding for Christians under the New Covenant. The New Testament teaches that all foods are clean for those who believe, signifying a shift from external ritual purity to internal spiritual transformation. Jesus Himself declared all foods clean in Mark 7:19, emphasizing that defilement comes from within a person, not from what goes into them. Furthermore, in Acts 10, Peter's vision of unclean animals being declared clean by God signified the breaking down of ceremonial barriers, not only regarding food but also regarding the inclusion of Gentiles into the family of God. The emphasis for New Covenant believers shifted from adherence to a legal code to living by the Spirit, with a focus on internal holiness and love for God and neighbor.
Christ-Centered Fulfillment
The Old Testament dietary laws, including the prohibitions in Leviticus 11:16, served as a "shadow" or a pedagogical tool, pointing to a greater spiritual reality that finds its ultimate fulfillment in Jesus Christ. These laws meticulously taught Israel about the nature of holiness, the pervasive presence of defilement in a fallen world, and the absolute necessity of distinction from it, thereby preparing them for the coming of the perfect Lamb of God. Christ, through His sinless life, His perfect obedience, and His atoning sacrifice on the cross, perfectly fulfilled the Law, including its ceremonial and ritualistic aspects. He is the one who truly cleanses, not merely ritually or externally, but spiritually, making us pure from within. As Hebrews 9:14 powerfully proclaims, "how much more will the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish to God, purify our conscience from dead works to serve the living God!" The distinction between clean and unclean, once maintained through external dietary rules, is now superseded by the indwelling Holy Spirit, who empowers believers to live lives of true, internal holiness, set apart for God not by what they eat, but by their transformed hearts and minds, as exhorted in Romans 12:2. In Christ, all who believe are made clean and are invited into intimate, unhindered fellowship with a holy God, thereby fulfilling the ancient call to be a holy people, not through adherence to a legal code, but through grace and faith in Him who is our perfect purity.