Thomas Aquinas

After showing that the fall of the Jews is not universal [n. 859], the Apostle now begins to show that their fall was neither useless nor irreparable. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that the fall of the Jews is useful and reparable; secondly, he disputes the Gentiles' boasting against the Jews [v. 17; n. 894]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he asks a question; secondly, he answers it [v. 11b; n. 880]. 879. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated and proved that except for the chosen, the rest of the Jews have been blinded. So the question arises: Have they stumbled so as to fall? This can be interpreted in two ways: the first way is this: Has God permitted them to stumble only so as to fall, i.e., not for any benefit that might follow but merely willing their fall? This, of course, would be contrary to God's goodness which, as Augustine says, is so great that it would not permit any evil to occur except for some good, which He draws out of the evil. Hence it says in Jb (34:24): "He shall break in pieces many and innumerable, and shall make others to stand in their stead"; and in Rev (3:11): "Hold fast what you have, so that no one may seize your crown,": namely, because God permits some to fall in order that their fall be the occasion of salvation for others. Another interpretation is this: Have they stumbled so as to fall? i.e., to remain fallen forever: "will he not rise again from where he lies?" (Ps 41:8). 880. Then when he says, Let it not be! he answers the question: first, according to the second interpretation that it is reparable; 439 second, he resolves the question according to the second interpretation, showing that the Jews’ situation is reparable [883]. 881. First, therefore, he says: By no means was their fall useless; rather, by their, namely, the Jews', trespass, salvation has come to the Gentiles. Hence the Lord Himself says: "Salvation is from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). This can be understood in three ways. In the first way, that by their trespass, which they committed in killing Christ, the salvation of the Gentiles was obtained through the redemption of Christ's blood: "you know that you were ransomed not with perishable things, such as silver or gold, but with the precious blood of the Lamb" (1 Pt 1:18). In the second way, it can be understood of the trespass by which they rejected the teaching of the apostles, with the result that the apostles preached to the Gentiles, as it says in Ac (13:46): "It was necessary that the word of God should be spoken first to you. Since you thrust it from you, we turn to the Gentiles." In a third way it can be understood as meaning that on account of their impenitence they have been scattered among all the nations. As a result Christ and the Church had from the books of the Jews testimony to the Christian faith helpful in converting the Gentiles, who might have suspected that the prophecies concerning the testimony of the Hews; hence it says in Ps 59 (v.10): "Let me look in triumph on my enemies," i.e., the Jews. "Slay them not, lest my people forget, make them totter by thy power." 882. There follows so that they may be jealous of them. 440 And because he does not say who or whom, and since there are two kinds of jealousy, namely that of indignation and that of imitation, this phrase can be explained in four ways. The first way is this. The Gentiles are jealous of them, namely the Jews, such that they imitate them in the worship of the one God: "You were at one time without Christ, alien to the way of life of Israel," and later he adds, "But now you, who were once far off, have been drawn near in the blood of Christ" (Eph 2:12); "You have become imitators of the Church of God" (1Th 2:14), which was in Judea. Or it can be interpreted this way. The Gentiles are jealous of the Jews, i.e., they are indignant against them on account of their unbelief: "I beheld the transgressors and I pined away, because they do not keep your words" (Ps 118:158). Thirdly, it can be understood in this way. The Jews are jealous, i.e., imitate the Gentiles when everywhere, and now some of them particularly, are converted to the faith, imitating the faith of the Gentiles; and in the end all Israel will be saved when the fullness of the Gentiles have entered. Thus will be fulfilled what is said in Dt 28(:44), "He will be the head and you will be the tail." Fourthly, it can be interpreted this way. The Jews are jealous of the Gentiles, i.e., are disturbed out of envy towards them when they see their glory passing over to them: "I will provoke you by that which is not a people" (Dt 22:21). 883. Then when he says, Now if their trespass, he answers the question as interpreted in the second way and shows that the fall of the Jews is reparable. He does this in three ways: first, from its usefulness; 441 secondly, from the Apostle's intention [v. 12; n. 885]; thirdly, from the condition of that people [v. 16; n. 891]. In regard to the first he presents the following reason: a good is more powerful than an evil in producing usefulness, but the evil which befell the Jews produced something very useful for the Gentiles, therefore, their good will produce greater usefulness for the world. What he is saying is this: It has been said that by their trespass the salvation of the Gentiles was achieved. Now if their trespass, i.e., the Jews', means riches for the world, i.e., for the Gentiles, because the trespass of the Jews resulted in spiritual riches for the Gentiles, (This refers to their guilt, and their failure, by which they fell from the lofty glory they had, pertains to their punishment). "For we are diminished more than any nation and are brought low in all the earth this day for our sins" (Dan 3:37). How much more will their full inclusion, i.e., their spiritual abundance or their multitude converted to God, result in riches for the Gentiles: "My abode is in the full assembly of saints" (Sir 24:16). And so, if for the benefit of the whole world God permitted the Jews to do wrong and be diminished, much more will He repair their disaster for the benefit of the whole world. 885. Then when he says, For I am speaking to you Gentiles, he shows the same things by revealing the purpose of his ministry, which he first states; secondly, he assigns the reason [v. 15; n. 890]. 886. In regard to the first it should be noted that whereas the previous parts of the epistle were directed to all the believers in Rome, whether from the Jews or from the Gentiles, he is now directing his words to the converted Gentiles. 442 887. He says, therefore: I have stated that their fullness will mean riches for the world. As testimony to this I say to you Gentiles, i.e., Gentiles converted to the faith: "I said, 'Behold me' to a nation that did not call upon my name" (Is 65:1). This, I repeat, I say to you: inasmuch as I am an apostle to the Gentiles, the special care of whom has fallen to me on account of the office entrusted to me: "For this was I appointed a preacher and apostle, a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (1 Tim 2:7); I will magnify my ministry not with things that pertain to worldly honor: but first by adorning it with good morals: "As servants of God we commend ourselves in every way in much patience." (2 Cor 6:4). Secondly, by performing extra works to which he was not bound: "What then is my reward? Just this: that by making his anxiety embrace everyone's salvation: "Apart from all other things, there is the daily pressure upon me of my anxiety for all the churches" (2 Cor 11:28). 888. Hence he adds: in order to make my flesh, i.e., the Jews, who are related to me in the flesh, as was said above in chapter 9(:3), jealous: "Do not despise your own flesh" (Is 58:7): and thus save some of them, namely, of the Jews: "not seeking my own advantage but that of many, that they may be saved" (1 Cor 10:33). 889. But this seems contrary to what he says in 2 Cor (10:13): "But we will not boast beyond limit, but will keep to the limits God apportioned us, to reach even to you" But he had not accepted the limit of his service, which was to the Gentiles. Therefore, he should not have concerned himself about the Jews. Some say that the Jews living in Judea did not pertain to his apostolate, but to that of Peter, James and John (Gal c.2). But the Jews living among the Gentiles pertained to his apostolate and he worked for their salvation. 443 But this seems contrary to his statement here. For if those Jews were the limit of his apostolate, he would not be magnifying his service. Therefore, it must be said that preaching to the Gentiles was committed to him in such a way that he was bound to it by necessity, as he says: "Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel. For necessity is laid upon me" (1 Cor 9:16); but he was not forbidden to preach to the Jews, even though he was not bound to do so. Consequently, by working for their salvation he magnified his service. But he would not have done this, if he thought their fall irreparable. Hence the Apostle's very zeal for the conversion of the Jews was the sign he adduced for stating that the fall of the Jews was reparable. 890. Then when he says, For if, he assigns the reason for his interest, namely, that the conversion of the Jews would contribute to the salvation of the Gentiles. Hence he says, For if their loss, i.e., their unbelief and disobedience, as a slave is said to be lost when he flees from the cave and obedience of his master. If I say the loss of the Jews means the reconciliation of the world, inasmuch as we have been reconciled to God through the death of Christ, what will their acceptance mean but life from the dead? i.e., that the Jews will be accepted again by God, as it says in Zech (11:17): "I took unto me two rods." What, I say, will such an acceptance mean but that it will make the Gentiles rise to life? For Gentiles are the believers who will grow lukewarm: "Because wickedness is multiplied, most men's love will grown cold" (Mt 24:12), or will fall away entirely, being deceived by Antichrist. These will be restored to their primitive fervor after the conversion of the Jews. 444 891. Then when he says, If the dough, he proves the same thing by considering the statue of the Jewish race. This he does in two ways. First, on the part of the apostles, when he says: If the representative portion [delibatio] is holy, so is the whole lump. The apostles chosen by God from the Jewish people are the representative sample taken from the whole lump. If, therefore, the apostles are holy, the consequence is that the Jewish people are holy. "You are a holy nation, God's own people" (1 Pt 2:9). 892. Secondly, he proves the same thing on the part of the patriarchs, who are compared to the Jews as root to branches; hence it says in Is (11:1): "there shall come forth a rod from the root of Jesse." If, therefore, the patriarchs, who are the root, are holy, then the Jews, who grew from them as branches, are also holy. 893. But this seems to conflict with what is said in Ex (18:9): "if a man is righteous, he shall surely live." Therefore, it does not follow that if the root is holy, so also the branches. The answer is that the Apostle is not speaking here of actual holiness, for he does not mean to say that unbelieving Jews are holy; but of potential holiness. For if their ancestors and descendents are holy, nothing prevents them from being called back to holiness themselves. Or one might answer that those who imitate the patriarchs are a special type of branch, as it says in Jn (8:39): "If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did."

After showing that the fall of the Jews was useful and reparable, the Apostle now forbids the Gentiles to boast against the Jews. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that the converted Gentiles must not boast against the Jews; 446 secondly, he answers an objection from the Gentiles [v. 19; n. 898]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he forbids the Gentiles to boast against the Jews; secondly, he gives the reason for this prohibition [v. 18b; n. 897]. 895. There seemed to be two things that might tempt the Gentiles to boast against the Jews. First, the defection of the Jews. Hence he says: We have stated that if the root is holy, so too the branches. But if some of the branches, i.e., some of the Jews but not all, were broken off, i.e., separated from the faith of their fathers who are compared as the root, do not boast: "The flame will dry up his shoots" (Jb 15:30); "The branches not being perfect shall be broken" (Wis 4:5). The second ground for boasting was their own promotion. But the lower the state from which one has been promoted, the more he is inclined to vain boasting, as it says in Pr (30:21): "By three things the earth is disturbed, and the fourth it cannot bear: By a slave when he reigns..." Hence he reminds them of the low state from which they were raised, saying: And you, O Gentile, a wild olive shoot, i.e., a tree bearing no fruit: "He shall be like tamaric in the desert" (Jer 17:6); "Every tree that does not bear fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire" (Mt 3:10). 896. Then he describes their promotion. First, that they have been raised to the dignity of that race; hence, he says: you were grafted in their place: "He shall break in pieces many and innumerable, and shall make others to stand in their stead" (Job 34:24). 447 Secondly that they have been made associates of the patriarchs, whom he had compared to the root; hence he says: to share the root, i.e., united to the patriarchs and prophets: "Many will come from the east and west, and sit at the table with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Mt 8:11). Thirdly, that they share the glory of the apostles when he says: and share the richness of the olive tree. The Jewish race is called the olive tree on account of the rich spiritual fruit they bore: "The Lord called you once a plentiful olive tree, fruitful and beautiful" (Jer 11:16); "I am like a green olive tree in the house of God" (Ps 52:8). But just as the roots of this olive tree are the patriarchs and prophets, so its richness is the abundance of the Holy Spirit's grace, which the apostles had more than all the others. This, therefore, is the way the Gentiles have been promoted to a partnership with that people, namely, with the patriarchs, apostles and prophets: "You are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets" (Eph 2:19). And although these may seem to be reasons for boasting, do not boast against the branches, i.e., against the Jews: "Your boasting is not good" (1 Cor 5:1). 897. Then when he says, If you do boast, he gives the reason for his admonition, saying: If in spite of this admonition you do boast by insulting the Jews, who stand upright or have been cut off, you should remember as a check to your boasting that it is not you that support the root, but the root that supports you, i.e., Judea did not receive salvation from the Gentiles, but just the reverse: "Salvation is from the Jews" (Jn 4:22). Hence, Abraham was promised that all the nations of the earth would be blessed in him (Gen c.22). 448 898. Then when he says, You will say, he excludes an objection from the Gentiles: first, he presents the objection; secondly, he excludes it [v. 20; n. 900]; thirdly, he urges them to scrutinize God's judgments [v. 22; n. 903]. 899. First, therefore, he says: Therefore, O Gentile, who boasts against the Jews, you might say: Branches were broken off, so that I might be grafted in, i.e., God permitted the Jews to fall from faith, so that I might enter into faith. But no one accepts the loss of one things save for something more precious and more desired, just as a physician allows a foot to remain sore in order to heal the eye. Thus, it would seem that the Gentile nations are more valuable and acceptable to God than Judea. Hence it says in Mal (1:10): "I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord of hosts, and I will not accept an offering from your hands. For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations" and in Is (49:6): "It is too light a thing that you should be my servant to raise up the tribes of Jacob; I will give you as a light to the nations." 900. Then when he says, That is true, he excludes the objection. First, he assigns the reason why the Jews fell away and the Gentiles were promoted, saying: That is true, i.e., that God permitted branches to be broken off, so that you might be grafted in, but consider the cause of the breaking off of the branches. It is because of their unbelief, i.e., because they refused to believe in Christ, that they were broken off: "If I speak the truth, why do you no believe me?" (Jn 8:46).But you, O Gentile, stand fast in faith, i.e., by believing in Christ, through Whom you have obtained 449 grace: "I preached to you the gospel, in which you stand, by which you are saved" (1 Cor 15:1). 901. Secondly, he gives an admonition, saying: So do not become proud, i.e., do not presume on yourself beyond yourself: "Do not be haughty, but consent to lower things" (Rom 12:15); but stand in awe, lest you too be broken off because of unbelief: "The fear of the Lord drives out sin" (Sir 1:27). 902. The reason for this admonition is given when he says: But if the natural branches, i.e., the Jews, who descended by natural origin from the patriarchs, God did not spare but allowed to be broken off, neither will he spare you, i.e., he might permit you to be broken off because of unbelief: "The jealously and rage of the husband will not spare on the day of revenge" (Pr 6:34); "I will not spare and I will not pardon; nor will I have mercy, but to destroy them" (Jer 13:14). This, therefore, is the Apostle's answer; that when someone sees that he has obtained grace and another has fallen, he should not boast against the fallen but rather fear for himself, because pride is the cause of falling headlong and fear is the cause of carefulness and being kept safe. 903. Then when he says, Note then the kindness and severity of God, he invites them to a close scrutiny of divine judgments: first, he invites them to consider; secondly, he instructs them as though unable to consider by themselves [v. 25); n. 912]; thirdly, as though he himself were not perfectly capable of this investigation, he exclaims in admiration of God’s wisdom [v. 33; n. 933]. 450 904. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he shows what should be considered, saying: Note then, i.e., give careful consideration to, the kindness of God having mercy: "How good, O Israel, is God to the upright of heart" (Ps 72:1); "Do you presume upon the riches of his kindness" (Rom 2:4); and his severity in punishing: "O Lord, thou God of vengeance (Ps 94:1); "The Lord is a jealous God and avenging (Nah 1:2). For the first consideration begets hope, the second begets fear, so that despair and presumption are avoided. 905. Secondly, he indicates the ones affected by each of these two qualities, saying: toward those who have fallen, i.e., the Jews, severity: "The Lord has destroyed without mercy all the habitations of Jacob" (Lam 2:2); but to you, the engrafted Gentile, kindness: "You have dealt kindly with your servant, O Lord" (Ps 119:65). 906. Thirdly, he shows how the foregoing points should be considered, since the situation is not immutable but could change in the future. 907. First, he shows this with respect to the Gentiles, saying: To you, I say, kindness, if you persevere in goodness: "Remain in my love" (Jn 15:9); otherwise, if you do not strive to persevere through fear and humility, you too will be cut off: "Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down" (Mt 3:10). 908. Secondly, he shows the same with respect to the Jews. First, he states the fact: and even the others, namely, the Jews, if they do not persist in their unbelief, will be grafted in, i.e., restored to their former status: "Thou has prostituted thyself to many lovers. Nevertheless, return to me, says the Lord" (Jer 3:1). 451 909. Then he proves what he has said: First, from God's power, saying: For God has the power to graft them in against; therefore, their salvation is not to be despaired of: "Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened, that it cannot save" (Is 59:1). Secondly, by arguing from the lesser, saying: For if you, O Gentile, have been cut from what is by nature a wild olive tree, i.e., from Gentileness, which by nature was not fruit-bearing, not as God made nature, but because it was spoiled by sin: "They were a wicked generation, and their malice natural" (Wis 12:10); "We were by nature children of wrath" (Eph 2:3); and grafted into a cultivated olive tree, i.e., into the faith of the Jews, contrary to nature, i.e., against the common course of nature. (For it is not the custom to graft the branch of a bad tree onto a good tree, but vice versa. But what God does is not against nature; it is natural in the fullest sense. For we call that natural which is cause by an agent to which the patient is naturally subject, even if it is not in keeping with the specific nature of the patient; for just as the ebb and flow of the sea is natural, because it is produced by the motion of the moon, to which the water is naturally subject, although it is not natural to the nature of water: so, too, since every creature is naturally subject to God, whatever God does in creatures is natural in the full sense, although it is not natural to the proper and particular nature of the thing in which it is done, say when a blind man has sight restored or a dead man is revived). 911. If, I say, this was contrary to nature, how much more will these natural branches, i.e., which by natural origin pertains to the Jewish nation, be grated back into their own olive tree, i.e., be brought back to the greatness of their nation: "He will turn the hearts of fathers to their children, and the hearts of children to their fathers" (Mal 4:6).

After leading the Gentiles to a knowledge of the divine judgments, in which God's kindness and severity were manifested, the Apostle, acting as though they are still unable to consider these things, explains how they seem to him. First, he presents the fact; secondly, he proves it [v. 26b; n. 917]; 453 thirdly, he gives the reason [v. 30; n. 930]. 913. In regard to the first he does three things. First, he states his intention, saying: IO have urged you to consider the kindness and severity of God, because I want you to understand this mystery, for you cannot grasp all mysteries. Hence, this is a prerogative of the perfect to whom the Lord say: "To you it has been given to understand the mystery of God's kingdom: (Lk 8:9); "I will not hide from you the mysteries of God" (Wis 6:24). But ignorance of this mystery would be very damaging to us. 914. Secondly, he discloses the reason for his intention: that you not be wise in your own conceits, i.e., not presume on your own understanding to condemn others and prefer yourself to them: "Never be conceited" (Rom 1:16); "Woe to those who are wise in their own eyes, and shrewd in their own sight (Is 5:21). 915. Thirdly, he states what he intended. First, with respect to the fall of particular Jews, when he says: a hardening has come upon Israel, not universally but upon a part: "Blind the heart of this people" (Is 6:10). Secondly, he predicts the end of this blindness, saying: until the full number of the Gentiles come in to the faith, i.e., not only some Gentile nations as were then converted; but either in all or the greater part the Church would be establishes: "The earth is the Lord's and all its fullness" (Ps 23:1). The Gentiles converted to the faith are said to come in, as though from the exterior and visible things they venerated into spiritual things and the divine will: "Come into his presence with singing" (Ps 100:2). 454 916. It should be noted that the word, until, can signify the cause of the blindness of the Jews. For God permitted them to be blinded, in order that the full number of the Gentiles come in. It can also designate the termination, i.e., that the blindness of the Jews will last up to the time when the full number of the Gentiles will come to the faith. With this agrees his next statement, namely, and then, i.e., when the full number of the Gentiles has come in, all Israel will be saved, not some, as now, but universally all: "I will save them by the Lord their God" (Hos 1:7); "He will again have compassion upon us (Mic 7:19). 917. Then when he says, As it is written, he proves what he had said about the future salvation of the Jews: first, he proves this with an authority; secondly, with a reason [v. 28; n. 921]. 918. First, therefore, he says: I say that all Israel will be saved, as it is written in Is (59:20), where our text says: "A redeemer will come from Zion and this will be my covenant with them that return to Jacob says the Lord." But the Apostle uses the Septuagint and touches on three things. First, the coming of a Savior, when he says: God will come, in human flesh to save us, from Zion, i.e., from the Jewish people who are signified by Zion, the citadel of Jerusalem, a city in Judea. Hence it says in Zech (9:9): " Rejoice greatly, o daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! Lo, our king comes to you..." and in Jn (4:22): "Salvation is from the Jews." 455 Or he says that he comes from Zion, not because he was born there, but because his doctrine went from there into the whole world, inasmuch as the apostles received the Holy Spirit in the cenacle in Zion: "Out of Zion shall go forth the law" (Is 2:3). 919. Secondly, he touches on salvation by Christ offered to the Jews, saying: he will banish ungodliness from Jacob. This could refer to deliverance from punishment: "He will snatch my soul from death" (Ps 115:8). Banish ungodliness from Jacob could refer to deliverance from guilt: "O that deliverance for Israel would come from Zion" (Ps 53:6). Or both could refer to liberation from guilt, but he says he will take out, because of the few, who now are converted with great difficulty and with, so to speak, a certain violence: "As if a shepherd should get out of the lion's mouth two legs, or the tip of the ear, so shall the children of Israel be taken out" (Amos 3:12). But he says will banish ungodliness from Jacob to show the ease with which the Jews will be converted at the end of the world: "Who is a God like thee, pardoning iniquity and passing over transgression for the remnant of his inheritance?" (Mic 7:18). 920. Thirdly, he shows the manner of salvation when hey says: And this will be my covenant with them, a new one from me, when I take away their sins. For the old covenant did not remove sins, because "it is impossible that the blood of bulls and goats should take away sins" (Heb 10:4). Therefore, because the Old Testament was imperfect, a new testament is promised to them: "I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and the house of Judah" (Jer 31:31) and it will have the power to remit sin through the blood of Christ: "This is my blood of the new covenant, which is poured out for many 456 for the forgiveness of sins" (Mt 26:28); "He will cast all our sins into the depths of the sea" (Mic 7:19). 921. Then when he says, As regards the gospel, he proves his statement with a reason: first, he presents the proof; secondly, he removes an objection [v. 29; n. 924]. 922. First, therefore, he says that their sins will be taken away and that after they have sins, they are enemies of Christ. As regards the gospel, which they resist, they are enemies for your sake, i.e., it has turned out to your benefit. Hence, it says in Lk (19:27): "As for those enemies of mind, who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and slay them before me"; and in Jn (15:24): "But now they have seen and hated both me and my Father." Or as regards the gospel means their enmity has helped the gospel, which has been spread everywhere by reason of such enmity: "In the word of truth of the gospel, which has come to you, as indeed in the whole world it is bearing fruit and growing" (Col 1:5). 923. But they are beloved by God for the sake of their forefathers as regards election, because He chose their descendants on account of their forefathers' grace: "The Lord loved your fathers and chose their descendants after them" (Dt 10:15). This does not means that the merits established by the fathers were the cause of the eternal election of the descendants, but that God from all eternity chose the fathers and the sons in such a way that the children would obtain salvation on account of the fathers; not as though the merits of the fathers were sufficient for the salvation of the 457 sons, but through an outpouring of divine grace and mercy, the sons would be saved on account of the promises made to the fathers. Or it can mean as regards election, i.e., as regards those elected from that people, salvation was obtained. For if they are dear to God, it is reasonable that they be saved by God: "The eye hath not seen, O God, besides thee, what things thou has prepared for them that wait for thee" (Is 64:4). 924. Then when he says, For the gifts, he excludes an objection. For someone might claim that even though the Jews were formerly beloved on account of their forefathers, nevertheless the hostility they exert against the gospel prevents them from being saved in the future. But the Apostle asserts that this is false, saying: The gifts and call o God are irrevocable, i.e., without repentance. As if to say: That God gives something to certain ones or call certain ones is without repentance, because God does not change His mind: "The Lord has sworn and will not change his mind" (Ps 110:4). 925. However, this seems false, for the Lord says: "It repenteth me that I made man" (Gen 6:7) and "if that nation against which I have spoken shall repent of their evil, I also will repent of the evil that I thought to do to them" (Jer 18:8). The answer is that just as God is said to grow angry, not because the emotion of anger is in him but because he is related to the effect of punishments after the manner of an angry man, so he is said to repent, not because the change involved in repentance is in him but because he changes what he had done after the manner of one who repents. 926. Nevertheless, it does seem that God's gifts are not without repentance, because they are frequently lost, as in Mt (25:28): "Take the talent from him and give it 458 to him that has ten talents." Furthermore, God's call seems to be changed sometimes, since it is written: "Many are called but few are chosen" (Mt 22:14). But it should be noted that "gift" is taken here for a promise made according to God's foreknowledge or predestination, and "call" is taken for election. Because both are so certain, whatever God promises is as good as given and whomever He elects is somehow already called. Such temporal gifts and callings are not voided by a change in God, as though He repented of them, but by a change in man who casts them off: "Take heed lest anyone be wanting in the grace of God" (Heb 12:15). 927. This passage can also be taken to mean that God's gifts which are bestowed in baptism, and the calling by which the baptized person is called, exist without the repentance of the baptized person. Furthermore, it was introduced to counteract any despair about the future salvation of the Jews, since they do not seem to repent of their sin. But against this interpretation are the words of Peter: "Repent and be baptized everyone of you" (Ac 2:38). This can be answered by recalling that repentance is of two kinds: interior and exterior. Interior repentance consists in the heart's contrition by which one is sorry for past sins. Such repentance is required of the baptized, because, as Augustine says: "No one who is arbiter of his own will can begin the new life, unless he repents of the old life; otherwise, he would approach dissembling." But exterior repentance consists in making satisfaction outwardly, and this is not required of the baptized person, because by baptismal grace man is freed not only of guilt but of all penalty, in virtue of the passion of Christ who satisfied for the sins of all: "All 459 of us who have been baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death" (Rom 6:3); "By the washing of regeneration and renewal in the Holy Spirit which he poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ" (*** 3:5). 928. But since the keys of the Church and all the other sacraments work by the power of Christ’s passion, it seems that by the same reasoning all the other sacraments should liberate man from guilt and from all punishment. But the answer is that Christ’s passion works in baptism in the manner of a generation, which requires that a man die completely to his former life to receive a new life. And because the debt of punishment belongs to the oldness of the former life, it is taken away in baptism. But in the other sacraments Christ’s passion works in the manner of a cleansing, as in the sacrament of penance. But a cleansing does not require that right away every remnant of weakness be taken away. And the same argument applies to the other sacraments. 929. But since the confession of sins is relevant for exterior repentance, one could ask whether confession of sins is required at baptism. And it seems that it is, because Mt 3(:6) says that men were baptized by John, "confessing their sins." But the answer is that John’s baptism was a baptism of repentance, namely because by receiving that baptism they declared that they would undertake penance for their sins, and so it was fitting that they should confess so that penance could be meted out to them in accord with the nature of their sins. But Christ’s baptism is a baptism for the remission of all sins, such that the baptized person no longer owes any satisfaction for his past sins, and for this reason there is no need for vocal confession. For the reason 460 confession is necessary on the sacrament of penance is so that the priest can, by the power of the keys, fittingly loose or bind the penitent. 930. Then when he says, Just as you were, he gives the reason for the future salvation of the Jews after their unbelief. First, he shows a similarity between the salvation of both people; secondly, the cause of this similarity [v. 32; n. 932]. 931. First, therefore, he says: So I say that Israel will be saved, although they are now enemies. For just as you Gentiles once did not believe God: "You were once without God in the world" (Eph 2:12); but now have received mercy because of their unbelief: below (15:9), "The Gentiles are to honor God for his mercy"; "I will have mercy on him who was without mercy" (Hos 2:23). And this was because of their unbelief, which was the occasion of your salvation, as was said above. So they, i.e., the Jews, now, i.e., in the time of grace, have not believed, namely, Christ: "Why do you not believe me?" (Jn 8:46). And this is what he adds: In order that by the mercy shown to you, i.e., in Christ's grace, by which you have obtained mercy: "You have saved us according to your mercy" (*** 3:5). Or they have not believed so that they enter into your mercy. Or they have not believed, which turned out to be the occasion of the mercy shown to you, in order that they also at some time may receive mercy: "The Lord will have compassion on Jacob" (Is 14:1). 932. Then when he says, For God, he gives the reason for this similarity, namely, because God wills that His mercy find room in all. And this is what he says: For God has included, i.e., allowed to be included, all, i.e., every race of men, both Jews and Gentiles, in unbelief, as in a chain of error: "They were all bound together with one chain of 461 darkness" (Wis 17:17), that he may have mercy on us, i.e., that His mercy find a place in every race of men. This should not be extended to included demons, as Origen would, or even to all men individually, but to all races of men. The statement applies to the genera of individuals not to all the individuals of the genera. God wishes all men to be saved by His mercy, in order that they be humbled by this fact and ascribe their salvation not to themselves but to God: "Destruction is thy own, O Israel: they help is only in me" (Hos 13:9); "In order that every mouth may be stopped, and the whole world may be made subject to God" (Rom 3:19).

Above the Apostle endeavored to assign a reason for the divine judgments, by which Gentiles and Jews obtain mercy after unbelief; now he recognizes his inadequacy for such an investigation and exclaims his admiration of the divine excellence. First, he extols the divine excellence; 462 secondly, he proves what he says [v. 34; n. 938]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he extols the divine wisdom in itself; secondly, in relation to us [v. 33b; n. 937]. 934. He extols the excellence of divine knowledge: first, as to its depth, saying: O the depth: "It is a great depth. Who shall find it out?" (Ec 7:25); "A glorious throne set on high from the beginning" (Jer 17:12). This depth is considered in regard to three things: first, in regard to the thing known, inasmuch as God knows himself perfectly: "I dwell in the highest places" (Sir 24:7); secondly, in regard to the manner of knowing, inasmuch as he knows all things through himself: "The Lord looked down from his holy height, from heaven the Lord looked at the earth" (PS 102:19); thirdly, in regard to the certainty of His knowledge: "The eyes of the Lord are far brighter than the sun" (Sir 23:28). 935. Secondly, he extols the excellence of divine knowledge in regard to its fullness when he says: of the riches "Abundance of salvation, wisdom and knowledge" (Is 33:6). This fullness is regarded in three ways: in one way as to the number of things known, because he knows all things: "Lord, you know all things" (Jn 21:17); "In him are hid all the treasures of wisdom ad knowledge" (Col 2:3); in another way in regard to ease of knowing, because He intuits all things without search and difficulty: "All things are open and laid bare to his eyes" (Heb 4:13). Thirdly, in regard to the abundance of His knowledge, because He gives it generously to everyone: "If anyone lacks wisdom, let him ask God who gives to all men generously" (Jas 1:5). 463 936. Thirdly, he extols the divine excellence in regard to its perfection when he says, of the wisdom and knowledge of God. For He has wisdom about divine things and knowledge about created things. "Who knows all things knows her" (Bar 3:32). 937. Then when he says, How incomprehensible, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom as compared to our understanding. And first in regard to wisdom, whose function is to judge and put things in order, he says: How incomprehensible are his judgments, because man cannot comprehend the reason of God's judgments, since they are hidden in his wisdom: "Thy judgments are like the great deep" (Ps 36:6). Secondly, in regard to knowledge, through which he is at work in things; hence he adds: and unsearchable i.e., his procedures, by which he works in creatures. Even though the creatures are known by man, the ways in which God works in them cannot be comprehended by man: "Thy way was through the sea, they path through the great waters; yet their footprints were unseen (Ps 77:19); "Where is the way to the dwelling of light" (Jb 38:19). 938. The when he says, For who, he proves what he had said by appealing to two authorities, one of which is Is 40(:13): For who has helped the spirit of the Lord, or who has been his counselor? The other is from Job (35:7; 41:11): Or who has given a gift to him that he might be repaid? In these words and those that follow them the Apostle does three things. 939. First, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom as compared to our understanding, saying: For who has known the mind of the Lord, namely, through which He judges and acts. As if to say: No one, unless God reveals it: "Who shall know they 464 though, except thou give wisdom, and send they Holy Spirit from above:" (Wis 9:17) and "The things of God no one knows but the Spirit of God. But to us God has revealed them through his Spirit" (1 Cor 2:12 & 10). Secondly, he shows the excellence of divine wisdom according as it has height in itself, and indeed is that height which is the supreme principle. Two points pertain to this: first, that it does not proceed from something else; secondly, that other things proceed from it [v. 36; n. 942]. 941. That God's wisdom does not depend on a higher source is shown in two ways. First, by the fact that it is not instructed by someone else's teaching. Hence, he says: Or who has been his counselor? As if to say: No one. For counsel is needed by one who does not fully know how something is to be done, and this does not apply to God: "To whom has thou given counsel? Perhaps to him that has no wisdom" (Jb 26:3). Secondly, by the fact that it is not helped by another's gift. Hence he adds: Or who has given a gift to him that he might be repaid, as one giving first? As if to say: No one. For man can give God only what he has received form God: "All this abundance comes from thy hand and is all thy own" (1 Chr 29:16); "If thou do justly, what shalt thou give him, or what shall he receive of thy hand" (Jb 35:7). 942. Then when he says, For from him, he shows God's depth, inasmuch as in Him are all things. First, he shows its causality; secondly, its dignity [v. 36b; n. 950]; 465 thirdly, its perpetuity [v.36c; n. 951]. 943. First, therefore, he says: It is right to say that no one first gave to him, because from him and through him and in him are all things. Thus nothing can be unless received from God. To designate God's causality he uses three prepositions, namely, "from", "through" and "in". But the preposition "from" [ex] denotes a principle of change; and this is in three ways. In one way the acting or movent principle; in another way the matter, in a third way the opposite contrary, which is the point of departure of the change. For we say that the knife came to be "from" the knife maker, "from" the steel, and "from" the unshaped [matter]. But the universe of creatures was not made from pre-existing matter, because even their matter is an effect of God. Accordingly, created things are not said to be from something but from its opposite, which is nothing; because they were nothing, before they were created to exist: "We are born of nothing" (Wis 2:2). But all things are from God as from their first maker: "All things are from God" (1 Cor 11:12). 944. It should be noted that another Latin word for "from" is de, which seems to suggest the same relationships; however, de always designates a consubstantial cause. For we say that the knife is from [de] the iron, but not from [de] the maker. Therefore, because the Son proceeds from the Father as consubstantial with Him, we say that the Son is from [de] the Father. But creatures do not proceed from God as consubstantial with Him; hence, they are not said to be from [de] Him but from [ex] Him. 466 945. The preposition, "through" designates the cause of an action; but because an action lies between the maker and the things he makes, there are two ways in which the preposition, "through," can designate the cause of an action. In one way accordingly as the action comes from its performer, as something which is its own cause of acting is said to act through itself. In one way this is the form, as we say that fire acts through heat. In another way it is a higher agent, as we say that man begets man through the power of the sun or rather of God. So, therefore, all things are said to be through him in two ways: In one way as through the first agent, by whose power all things act: "Through me kings reign" (Pr 8:15). In another way, inasmuch as His wisdom, which is His essence, is the form through which God makes all things: "The Lord through wisdom founded the earth" (Pr 3:19). 946. In another way the preposition, "through," designates the cause of an action, not as it comes from the performer but as terminated in its products, as we say that the artisan makes a knife through a hammer: not that the hammer works with the artisan in the way described above, but because the knife comes to be from the activity of the artisan by means of the hammer. Therefore, it is said that this preposition, "through," designates authority directly, as when we say that the king acts through his bailiff—which pertains to what is now being said. But sometimes in a causal sense, as when we say that the bailiff acts through the king—which pertains to the preceding mode. In this mode about which we are now speaking, all things are said to have been made by the Father through the Son, as in Jb (1:3): "All things were made through him," not that the Father has from the Son the power to make thing, but rather that the Son 467 accepts the power of making things from the Father, a power not instrumental but principal, not of a lower order but equal, not diverse but the same: "Whatever the Father does, that the Son does likewise" (Jn 5:19). Hence, although all things were made by the Father through the Son, The Son is not an instrument or minister of the Father. 947. The preposition, "in," also designates a causal relationship in three ways: in one way it designates matter, as we say that the soul is in the body or a form in matter. This is not the way in which things are said to be in God, because He is not the material cause of things. In another way it designates a relationship of efficient cause, in whose power it lies to dispose of its effects. In this sense all things are said to be in Him, inasmuch as all things lie under His power and arrangement: "In his hand are all the ends of the earth" (Ps 95:4); "In him we live and move and have our being" (Ac 17:28). In a third way it designates a relationship of final cause, in that the entire good of a thing and its preservation consists in its own optimum. In this sense all things are said to be in God as in the goodness preserving them. "All things hold together in him" (Col 1:17). 948. When he says, All, it is not be taken absolutely for all things which have true being. Sins do not have true being, but insofar as they are sins they lack some being, due to the fact that evil is nothing else than a deprivation of good. Therefore, when he says: From him and through him and to him are all things, this does not include sin, because, according to Augustine, since is nothing and man accomplishes nothing when he sins. yet, whatever entity is present in sin, it is from God. 468 949. Therefore, according to the foregoing, all things are from Him, i.e., God as from the first operating power. All things are through Him, inasmuch as He makes all things through His wisdom. All things are in Him as in their preserving Goodness. Now these three things, namely, power, wisdom and goodness are common to the three persons. Hence, the statement that from him and through him and in him can be applied to each of the three persons. Nevertheless, the power, which involved the notion of principle, is appropriated to the Father, Which is the principle of the entire godhead; wisdom to the Son, Who proceeds as Word, which is nothing else than wisdom begotten; goodness is appropriated to the Holy Spirit, Who proceeds as love, whose object is goodness. Therefore, by appropriation we can say: from him, namely, from the Father, through him, namely, through the Son, in him, namely, in the Holy Spirit, are all things. 950. Then when he says, To him be honor and glory forever, he allows God's dignity, which consists in the two things previously mentioned. For from the fact that all things are from Him and through Him and in Him, honor and reverence and subjection are owed Him by every creature: "If I am a father, where is my honor" (Ma. 1:6). But from the fact that He has not received either counsel or gifts from anyone, glory is owed Him; just as on the contrary it is said of man: "If then you received it, why do you boast as though it were not a gift?" (1 Cor 4:7). And because this is proper to God, it says in Is (42:8): "I am the Lord; my glory I give to no other." 951. Finally, he mentions His eternity when he says: unto the ages of ages, because His glory does not pass as does man's glory, of which it is said: "All its glory is 469 like the flower of the filed" (Is 40:6). But God's glory lasts for all ages, i.e., through all the ages succeeding all ages, inasmuch as the duration of any given thing is called an age. Or unto the ages of ages refers to the durations of incorruptible things, which contain the ages of corruptible things. This applies especially to God’s eternity, which can be spoken of as a plurality because of the multitude and diversity of things contained in it, even though it is one and simple in itself. The meaning would then be "unto the ages that contain the ages": "Your reign is a reign of all ages" (Ps 144:13). 952. He adds: Amen, as confirmation. As if to say: Truly it is so. This is the meaning in the gospels when it says: "Amen, I say to you." Sometimes, however, it means: May it come to pass.

953. Having shown the need for virtues and the origin of grace [n. 97], here the Apostle teaches how grace should be used, a subject pertaining to moral instruction. And he does two things in this regard. First he sets out a general moral teaching; Second, he descends to more particular questions related to the recipients of his letter, around the middle of chapter 15 at [verse 14; n. 1163] I myself am assured. And regarding the first, he does two things. First, he teaches how one should use grace to be a perfect man; Second, how the perfect man should sustain the imperfect, in chapter 14 there [verse 1; n. 1081] at Now as for the man who is weak. Concerning the first, he does three things. 471 First he offers instruction about that perfection of life relating to the sanctity by which we a man serves God; Second, relating to righteous dealings with one’s neighbor, in chapter 13 at [verse 1; n. 1016] Let every soul; Third, relating to that purity a man must preserve within himself, around the end of the thirteenth chapter at [verse 11; n. 1060] And knowing this. Regarding the first, he does two things. First he admonishes that a man should present himself holy to God; Second, he teaches how one should use the gifts of God’s grace that make one holy, there [n. 968] at For I say, by the grace. First he teaches how one should present himself to God as regards the body; Second, as regards the soul, there [n. 965] at And be not conformed. 954. Regarding the first, he does two things [n. 957]. First he leads them to heed what he has taught, and this in two ways [n. 956]. First on his own account, when he says, I beseech you therefore, brothers, as though to say: God’s judgment were described as beyond all comprehension, and his ways as beyond all investigation, and so I beseech you, brothers, that you heed that you have been taught. 955. Now he resorts to beseeching them for three reasons. First, to show his humility: "With supplication speaks the poor man," the one who puts no trust in his own wealth, and on this account attempts to compel men to good deeds not by what belongs to him but by what belongs to God. For to beseech [obsecrare] is to call on sacred things as witnesses [ob sacra contestari]. 472 31 Augustine, City of God, book 10, chapter 5. Second, to move his readers more by asking than by fear, than by commanding as one in authority: "Accordingly, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do what is required, yet for love's sake I prefer to appeal to you" (Phm 8-9); "You who are spiritual, instruct such a one in a spirit of gentleness" (Gal 6:1). Third, out of reverence for the Romans, to whom he wrote: "Do not rebuke an older man but exhort him as you would a father." 956. Next he leads them to heeding on God’s account when he says, by the mercy of God, that mercy by which you are saved: "According to his mercy he saved us" (*** 3:5). And so when we consider God’s mercy we should do what we have been taught: "Should you not have had mercy on your fellow servant, as I had mercy on you?" (Matt 18:33). Or it could mean by the mercy of God, i.e., in virtue of the apostolic authority mercifully entrusted to me: "I give my opinion as one who by the Lord’s mercy is trustworthy" (I Cor 7:25). 957. Secondly, he gives the admonition when he says: present your bodies as a living sacrifice. Here it should be noted that, as Augustine says in the tenth book of The City of God,31 a visible sacrifice offered outwardly to God is a sign of an invisible sacrifice, whereby one offers himself and all he possesses for God’s service. 958. Now man possesses three goods. First, he has the soul, which is presented to God by humble devotion and contrition: "The sacrifice acceptable to God is a contrite spirit" (Ps 51:17). 473 Secondly, a man has external goods, which he presents to God by giving alms: "Do not neglect to do good and to share what you have, for such sacrifices are pleasing to God" (Heb 13:16). Thirdly, a man has the good which is his own body. In regard to this he says: present, i.e., to God, your bodies, as a spiritual sacrifice. Now an animal offered to God was called a sacrifice [hostia], either because it was offered for victory over enemies [hostium] or for protection from enemies [hostium] or because it was offered in the entrance [ostium] of the Tabernacle. 959. A person can present his body to God as a sacrifice in three ways. First, when he exposes his body to suffering and death for God’s sake, as it is said of Christ: "He gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God" (Eph 5:2); and as the Apostle says of himself: "Even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I rejoice" (Phil 2:17). Secondly, when he weakens his body by fasts and watchings in the service of God: "I pommel my body and subdue it" (I Cor 9:27). Thirdly, when he uses his body to perform acts of righteousness and of divine worship: "Present your members to serve righteousness for sanctification" (Rom 6:19). 960. Moreover, one should recall that the offering sacrificed to God had four features. First, the thing offered was to be sound and unimpaired; hence Malachi 1(:14), "Cursed be the cheat who has a male in his flock and vows it, and yet sacrifices to the Lord what is blemished." And this is why he says living, i.e., that the offering we make 474 32 Proprie autem sanctitas dicitur per respectum ad Deum, inquantum scilicet homo servat ea quae sunt iusta, quoad Deum. to God of our body be living by faith formed by love: "The life I now live in the flesh I live by faith in the Son of God" (Gal 2:20). Note here that a natural sacrificial offering previously alive was killed and immolated to show that death as yet ruled the human race so long as sin reigned, as was said above (Rom 5:12ff). But this spiritual sacrificial offering is always alive and increasing in vigor, in accord with John 10(:10), "I came that they may have life and have it abundantly," because sin has now been removed through Christ; unless we say that the sacrificial offering of our body is something alive to God through the righteousness of faith but is dead to the desires of the flesh: "Put to death, therefore, what is earthly in you" (Col 3:5). 961. Secondly, the sacrificial offering presented to God was sanctified in its very immolation. Hence it is written: "Every man of your race who, having an uncleanness, approaches these things that are consecrated, and that the children of Israel offer to the Lord, shall perish before the Lord" (Lev 22:3). Therefore, he adds holy, made so by the devotion with which we bind our bodies to the service of God: "Consecrate yourselves, therefore, and be holy, because I the Lord your God am holy" (Lev 20:7). Now "holiness" in the proper sense bespeaks a relation to God, insofar as one does what is righteous before God.32 962. Thirdly, when the sacrifice was consummated, it was described as a sacrifice pleasing and acceptable to God: "The priest shall burn the whole on the altar as a burnt offering, an offering by fire, a pleasing odor to the Lord" (Lev 1:9). Hence, he says: 475 33 This phrase is omitted from Mark 9:49 in modern critical texts of the New Testament and so does not appear in modern English translations. pleasing to God, by reason of a right intention: "That I may be pleasing to God in the light of the living" (Ps 56:13). 963. Fourthly, in the preparation of the sacrifice, salt was added: "You shall season all your offerings with salt" (Lev 2:13); "Every victim shall be salted with salt" (Mk 9:49).33 Now salt signifies a wise discretion; hence he says: "Conduct yourselves wisely toward outsiders. Let your speech always be gracious, seasoned with salt" (Col 4:5). Hence, he continues: your spiritual worship [your reasonable service], i.e., be discreet in presenting your bodies to God as a sacrifice whether by martyrdom or abstinence or any other righteous work, because "all things should be done decently and in order" (I Cor 14:40); "The king’s honor loves judgment" (Ps 99:4). 964. The righteous man is related one way to internal acts, by which He serves God, and another way to external acts. For a man’s good and his righteousness consist mainly in the internal acts, by which he believes, hopes and loves. Hence it says in Luke 17(:21), "The kingdom of God is within you." For it does not consist principally of interior works, as is said below in chapter 14(:7), "The kingdom of God is not food and drink." Hence, internal acts stand as an end sought for its own sake, whereas external acts, in which our bodies are presented to God, stand as means to the end. No limit is set on something sought as an end; rather, the greater it is the better it is. But on what is sought as a means to an end, a limit is set in accord with its proportion to that end. Thus, a doctor seeks as much health as possible, but he does not give as much medicine as he can; rather, he limits it to the amount required for restoring health. 476 Similarly, a person should set no limit on his faith, hope and love; rather, the more he believes and hopes and loves, the better he is. Hence it is stated in Deuteronomy 6(:4), "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might." But in external acts a discreet limit is imposed by the requirements of love. Hence Jerome says: "Does not rational man lose his dignity, if he chooses to fast and watch at the expense of his bodily health or incur the marks of madness or sadness from singing the Psalms and office?" 965. Then when he says, do not be conformed and so on, he explains how one should present himself to God as regards the soul. And first he forbids conformity to the age, when he says do not be conformed to this age, i.e., to things that pass with time. For the present age is the measure of things that slide past in time. And a person is conformed to temporal things when he clings to them with love: "They became detestable, like the things they loved" (Hos 9:10); "Religion that is pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows in their affliction and to keep oneself unstained from this world" (Jas 1:27). The one who imitates worldly lifestyles is also conformed to this age: "I testify in the Lord that you must no longer live as the Gentiles do" (Eph 4:17). 966. Secondly, he tells them to reform their minds inwardly, when he says: but be reformed by the newness of your sense. 477 34 Sensus here translates the Greek word nous, best rendered "mind"; the Nova Vulgata has mentis. Man’s sense is here called his "reason," because with the senses man forms judgments about what is to be done.34 When man was created, this sense was sound and vigorous: "He filled their hearts with sense, and showed them good and evil" (Sir 17:7); but by sin it was corrupted and, as it were, grown old: "You have grown old in a foreign land" (Bar 3:10). As a consequence, it lost its beauty and charm: "From the daughter of Zion has departed all her charm" (Lam 1:6). Therefore, the Apostle tells us to be reformed, i.e., to take up again that beauty and elegance which the mind once had. This is accomplished by the grace of the Holy Spirit. If a person does not share in this grace, he should desire to do so, and if he does share in it, he should desire to progress in it: "Be renewed in the spirit of your minds" (Eph 4:23); "Your youth shall be renewed like the eagle’s" (Ps 103:5). Or, interpreting in another way, be renewed in your outward actions in the newness of your sense, i.e., in the newness of grace, which you have received in your mind. 967. Thirdly, he gives a reason for this admonition when he says: that you may perceive what is the will of God. Here it should be noted that just as a person with a diseased palate misjudges the taste of foods and sometimes recoils from the tasty but approves the disgusting, whereas a person with a healthy palate judges tastes correctly; so a person whose affections are corrupted by conformity to worldly things misjudges the good, whereas a person whose affections are upright and sound, his sense having been renewed by grace, judges the good correctly. 478 That is why he said: Do not be conformed to this world, but be reformed by the newness of your sense, namely that you may prove, i.e., know by experience: "Taste and see that the Lord is sweet" (Ps 34:8). What is the will of God, by which he wills that you be saved: "This is the will of God, your sanctification" (1Thess 4:3). That will is good, i.e., he wills that we will the honorable good and by his precepts leads us to it: "I will show you, O man, what is good, and what God requires of you" (Mic 6:8). And acceptable, inasmuch as what God wills that we will is pleasant to a well-disposed person: "The precepts of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart" (Ps 19:8). Indeed, what God wills is not only useful for attaining our end but also perfect, uniting us, as it were, with the end: "You must be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Mt 5:48); "Walk before me and be perfect" (Gen 17:1). God’s will is experienced as good, pleasing and perfect by those who are not conformed to this age, but are reformed in the newness of their sense. On the other hand, those who continue in their oldness, being conformed to this age, judge that God’s will is not good but burdensome and unprofitable: "Wisdom seems very harsh to the uninstructed" (Sir 6:20). 968. Then when he says, For I say, by the grace that is given me, he teaches how God’s gifts should be used. First, he teaches this in regard to gifts that are not common to all, such as the graces freely given [gratia gratis data]; secondly, in regard to the gift of charity, which is common to all, there [verse 9; n. 983] at love without pretense. In regard to the first he does two things. 479 First, he teaches in general how one ought to use gratia gratis data; secondly, he follows this up in the parts, there [verse 6; n. 976] at having gifts. Concerning the first, he does two things. First he sets out the instruction; second, he gives the reason for it, there [verse 4; n. 972] at For as in one body. 969. In regard to the first he does three things. First, he warns against excess, saying: I have encouraged you to be renewed by the newness of your sense, but you should do this in moderation, for I say, i.e., I command, by the grace of the apostleship and the apostolic authority given to me: "When they perceived the grace that was given to me among the Gentiles" (Gal 2:9); "to me, the least of all the saints, this grace was given" (Eph 3:8). Every one among you, because it is profitable to every one: "I wish that all were as I myself am" (I Cor 7:7). This, I say, I command: not to be more wise than it is necessary to be wise, i.e., no one should presume, relying on his own sense or wisdom beyond his limitations: "Be not wiser than is necessary" (Ec 7:16); "I have not walked among great things, nor among marvels above me" (Ps 131:1). 970. Secondly, he exhorts them to a middle course, saying but be wise unto sobriety, i.e., I direct you to be wise commensurate with the grace given to you. For although sobriety implies a measure. And although the word taken in its proper sense has to do with drinking wine, it can be used in regard to any matter in which a person should observe a due measure: "Training us to live sober, upright and godly lives in this world" (*** 2:12). 480 971. Thirdly, he teaches how the middle course should be gauged when he says: and this, I say, as God has divided, i.e., distributed, to each one the measure of faith, i.e., the measure of his gifts, which are given for the building up of the faith: "To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good" (I Cor 12:7). For God does not give such gifts the same to all, but distributes different ones to different persons: "There are varieties of gifts" (I Cor 12:4). Nor does he give them equally to all, but to each according to a definite measure: "Grace was given to each of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift" (Eph 4:7). That is why the Apostle, thinking with sober judgment according to this measure, said: "We will not boast beyond measure, but will keep to the measure of the rule by which God has measured out to us" (2 Cor 10:13). To Christ alone has the Spirit been given without measure, as it says in John 3(:34). God gives not only the gratia gratis data according to a measure, but even that faith which works through love. Hence the apostles said to Christ: "Lord, increase our faith" (Lk 17:15).

972. After this admonition the Apostle assigns a reason based on the mystical body’s likeness to a natural body. First, he touches on three things in a natural body; first, its unity when he says: For as in one body; secondly, the multiplicity of members when he says: we have many members; for the human body is an organism consisting of various members; thirdly, the variety of functions when he says: all the members do not 482 have the same function. For the variety of members would serve no purpose unless they were ordered to different functions. 973. Then he likens these three aspects to the mystical body of Christ, which is the Church: "He made him the head over all things for the church, which is his body" (Eph 1:22). Concerning which he touches on three things [n. 974ff]. First, he touches on the number of members, i.e., of believers when he says: so we, though many: "A man once gave a great banquet and invited many" (Lk 14:16); "Many are the children of the desolate" (Is 54:1). For although they are few compared to the unfruitful multitude of the damned, according to Matthew 7(:14), "Narrow is the way that leads to life, and few there are who find it," yet absolutely speaking, they are many: "After this he looked, and behold, a great multitude which no man could number" (Rev 7:9). 974. Secondly, he touches on the unity of the mystical body when he says we are one body: "that he might reconcile us both to God in one body through the cross" (Eph 2:16). This mystical body has a spiritual unity through we are united to one another and to God by faith and love: "There is one body and one spirit" (Eph 4:4). And because the Spirit of unity flows into us from Christ—"Anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him" (Rom 8:9)—he adds in Christ, who unites us to one another and to God by his Spirit whom he gives us: "That they may be one even as we are one" (Jn 18:22). 483 35 The verse in Matthew continues: "…to each according to his ability." 975. Thirdly, he touches on the variety of functions, which is rooted in the common good [utilitatem], when he says: and individually members one of another. For any given member has its own function and power. Therefore, inasmuch as the function and power of one member aids another, it is said to be the other’s member; thus, the foot is called the eye’s member, inasmuch as it directs the foot: "the eye cannot say to the hand, ‘I have no need of you’" (I Cor 12:21). So, too, in the mystical body one who has received the gift of prophecy needs the one who has received the gift of healing, and so on for all the others. Hence, as long as each believer uses the grace given him to help another, he becomes the other’s member: "Bear one another’s burdens" (Gal 6:2); "As each has received a gift, employ it for one another" (I Pt 4:10). Then when he says, having gifts, he explains in more detail the previous general admonition [n. 968] to use grace in a sober and moderate way. First, he sets out the variety of graces: we are, I say, members one of another, not on account of the same grace, but by having different gifts; and this is not due to differing merits but according to the grace given to us: "Each has his own special gift from God, one of one kind and another of another" (I Cor 7:7); "He called his servants and gave to each his goods, and to one he gave five talents, to another two, and to another only one" (Mt 25:14).35 977. Secondly, he touches on the use of different graces, and first with respect to knowledge of divine things, saying: if prophecy, the one among us who has it should use it according to the rule of faith. 978. Prophecy is a kind of apparition arising from the divine revelation of things far remote. Hence it is said in I Sam 9(:9), "He who is now called a prophet was 484 formerly called a seer." Among matters far remote from our knowledge some are remote of their very nature, as future contingents, which are not knowable, because their causes are indeterminate; but divine matters are remote from our knowledge not of their very nature, for they are knowable in the highest degree, because "God is light and there is no darkness in him" (I Jn 1:5), but on account of the weakness of our intellect, which is related to matters most evident as the eye of an owl to sunlight. And because something is said to be thus and so in a truer sense, when it is thus and so on its own account rather than on account of something else, future contingents are in a truer sense said to be far from our knowledge. For this reason they are the proper concern of prophecy: "Surely the Lord God does nothing without revealing his secret to his servants the prophets" (Am 3:7). But prophecy in a general sense includes the revelation of any secret things. This gift of prophecy existed not only in the Old Testament but in the New as well: "I will pour out my spirit on all flesh: your sons and daughters shall prophesy" (Jl 2:28). In the Old Testament those who explained prophetic statements were also called prophets, because Sacred Scripture is explained in the same spirit as it is written: "I shall pour out teaching like prophecy" (Sir 24:46). 979. The gift of prophecy, as all the other charismatic graces, is ordained to the building up of faith: "To each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good" (I Cor 12:7); "It was declared," i.e., the doctrine of faith, "by the Lord…, while God also bore witness by signs and wonders and various miracles and by gifts of the Holy Spirit" (Heb 2:30). Consequently, prophecy should be used in proportion to our faith, i.e., not in vain but in order that faith be strengthened not opposed by it: "If a prophet arises among you and says, ‘Let us go after other gods,’ you shall not listen to the 485 words of that prophet’" (Dt 13:1), because he is not prophesying in proportion to the faith. 980. In regard to administering the sacraments he adds: if service, in our serving, i.e., if one has received the grace or office of the ministry, such as the bishop or priest who are called God’s ministers - "You shall be called the priests of the Lord, the ministers of our God" (Is 56:6) - let him perform his office diligently by ministering: "Fulfill your ministry" (2 Tim 4:5). 981. Secondly, he touches on matters pertinent to human affairs in which one person can help another: first, with respect to knowledge both speculative and practical. With respect to speculative knowledge he says: He who teaches, i.e., who has the office or grace of teaching, let him use it in teaching, i.e. teach diligently and faithfully: "Behold, you have taught man" (Jb 4:3); "Go, therefore, and teach all nations" (Mt 28:19). With respect to practical knowledge he says: he who exhorts, i.e., has the office and grace of exhorting, let him use it in exhorting: "Our appeal does not spring from error or uncleanness, nor is it made with guile" (I Th 2:3); "Declare these things; exhort with all authority" (*** 2:15). 982. Then he mentions those that pertain to external works in which a person sometimes helps another by giving a gift. In this regard he says: He who contributes, i.e., has the power and grace to contribute, should do this in simplicity, namely, with no evil ulterior motive, such as enticing men to evil with gifts, and with no intention of obtaining a great deal more from the small amount given: "A stupid man’s gift will bring 486 you no advantage, his eyes look for seven times as much in return. He gives little and reviles much" (Pr 11:3). Sometimes one helps another, because he has charge of him. In regard to this he says: he who rules, i.e., has been entrusted with the office of prelate, should use that office with zeal [solicitude]: "Obey your leaders and submit to them; for they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give an account" (Heb 13:17); "My anxiety for all the churches" (2 Cor 11:28). Again, sometimes one helps another by easing his misery. In regard to this he says: He who does acts of mercy, i.e., has the means and a merciful heart, should do this with cheerfulness, as doing it gladly: "Not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver" (2 Cor 9:7); "In every gift make your countenance cheerful" (Sir 35:11). 983. Then [n. 968] when he says, let love be genuine, he shows how to use a gift which is common to all, namely, charity. First, he states what pertains to charity in general; secondly, charity toward special classes of persons [v. 13; n. 993]. With respect to the first he does three things: first, he describes the qualities of charity as it exists in the one possessing it; secondly, the qualities of charity toward one’s neighbor [v. 10; n. 985]; thirdly, toward God [v. 11; n. 987]. 984. In regard to the qualities of charity he teaches three things. First, that charity should be true. Hence he says: let love be genuine [without pretense], so that it consist not in word or outward appearance but in a genuine affection 487 of heart and in efficacious works: "Let us not love in word or speech, but in deed and in truth" (I Jn 3:18); "Nothing can compare to a faithful friend" (Sir 6:15). Secondly, he teaches that love should be pure when he says: hate what is evil. Love is pure when a person does not consent to his friend in evil, but so loves him that he hates his vices: "It does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the truth" (I Cor 13:6); "I hate the impious" (Ps 119:113). Thirdly, he teaches that love should be honorable when he says: hold fast to what is good, so that one adheres to another because of his virtuous goodness: "Always emulate the good in his goodness" (Gal 4:18). 985. Then when he says, love one another with brotherly affection, he shows how charity should be shown to one’s neighbor. And first as regards interior affection, when he says love one another with brotherly affection, i.e., so that through charity we not only love the brethren but even love the very charity by which we love them and are loved by them. For if we regard charity as such a great treasure, we will not allow it to be dissolved so easily: "Let brotherly love continue" (Heb 13:1); "If a man offered for love all the wealth of his house, it would be utterly scorned" (Song 8:7). 986. Secondly, with respect to its outward effect when he says: outdo one another in showing honor. Three things are designated here. First, that a person should hold the neighbor in reverence. This pertains to the very notion of honor, for no one can truly love a person he despises: "In humility, count others better than yourselves" (Phil 2:3). This is realized when one considers his own shortcomings and the good qualities of his neighbor. Under the heading of honor are 488 included not only honor but the provision of necessities, for when it is commanded in Ex (20:12): "Honor your father and your mother," the provision of necessiti4es is commanded. This is clear from the fact that Our Lord in Mt (a5:3ff) rebuked the Pharisees for violating this precept by hindering children from helping their parents. Secondly, it designates that the effect of love should be shown mutually, i.e., a person should desire not only to receive benefits but also to grant them: "Let not your hand be stretched out to receive and clenched when it is time to give" (Si 4:31); "In dividing by lot, give and take" (Si 14:15). He refers to this when he says: one another. Thirdly, he designates that the effect of love should be prompt and swift, when he says: anticipate, so that one should anticipate a friend in doing favors: "Every friend declares his friendship" (Sir 37:1). 987. Then when he says, in zeal, he shows the qualities surrounding charity’s love of God. First, he starts with reason’s attentiveness when he says: never flag in zeal [carefulness], when it is a question of worshiping God: "He has showed you, O man, what is good; and what does the Lord require of you," and he continues: "but to walk carefully with your God?" (Mic 6:8); "Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved" (2 Tim 2:15). 988. Secondly, the affections when he says: be aglow in the spirit, namely, in loving God. Being aglow [fervor] comes from an abundance of heat; hence it is called fervor of spirit, because the whole person is aglow toward God on account of the abundance of 489 his love: "Apollos, being fervent in spirit, spoke and taught concerning Jesus" (Ac 19:25); "Do not quench the Spirit" (I Th 5:19). 989. Thirdly, the outward homage when he says: serve the Lord, namely, with the worship of latria, which is paid to God alone: "The Lord your God shall you adore and him alone shall you serve" (Dt 6:13); "Serve the Lord with fear" (Ps 2:11). Or according to another text, serving the time, namely that we should perform our service of God at the fitting time: "There is a time and an opportunity for every affair" (Ecc 8:6). 990. Fourthly, the reward of serving when he says: rejoicing in hope, namely of a reward which is the enjoyment of God: "I, the Lord, am your reward exceedingly great" (Gen 15:2); "We rejoice in our hope of sharing the glory of God" (Rom 5:2). But hope rejoices a man by reason of its certainty, but it afflicts him by reason of its delay: "Hope deferred makes the heart sick" (Pr 13:12). 991. Fifthly, the difficulty a person endures in the service of God when he says: in tribulation, which you endure for God, be patient: "Tribulation produces patience "(Rom 5:3) 992. Sixthly, in the light of all the foregoing he says: be constant in prayer, in which is indicated continuance in prayer: "We ought always to pray and not lose heart" (Lk 18:1); "Pray constantly" (I Th 5:17). For by prayer carefulness is aroused in us and fervor kindled, we are stimulated to serve God, the joy of hope is increased and we win help in tribulation: "In my distress I called on the Lord and he answered me" (Os 120:1). 490 993. Then when he says, contribute, he discusses charity with regard to certain particular persons. First, as regards the needy; second, as regards enemies [v. 14; n. 996]. 994. Concerning the first he does two things. First, he urges in general that the subventions of charity be afforded to the needy, when he says: Contribute to the needs of the saints. Three things should be noted here: first, that alms be given out of charity to the poor and needy: "Let him labor, doing honest work with his hands, so that he may be able to give to others in need" (Eph 4:28). Secondly, that upright and saintly persons should be helped before others; hence he says: to the needs of the saints: "Give to the good man; refuse the sinner" (Sir 12:4). This does not mean that sinners should not be helped in their needs, but that they should not be helped so as to nourish sin. Yet it is more useful to help the just, because such an alms is fruitful not only for the giver but also from the prayers of the recipient: "Make friends for yourselves by means of unrighteous mammon, so that when it fails they may receive you into the eternal habitations" (Lk 16:19), namely, by their prayers. 995. Then he urges them to be hospitable when he says: practice hospitality, because the other works of mercy are included in this one. For a host offers not only his home as a shelter, but provides for other needs as well: "Do not neglect to show hospitality to strangers" (Heb 13:12); "Practice hospitality ungrudgingly to one another" (I Pt 4:9).

996. Above the Apostle showed that charity should be practiced toward the needy, now he shows how it should be practiced even toward enemies: first, he gives the admonition; secondly, he proves what he said [v. 19b; n. 1013]. With respect to the first it should be noted that three things pertain to charity: first, benevolence, which consists in willing good to another and not willing evil; secondly, concord, which consists in friends willing the same thing and rejecting the same thing; thirdly, beneficence, which consists in doing good and causing no injury to the one loved. First, therefore, he touches on matters pertaining to benevolence; 492 secondly, to concord [v. 15; n. 1003]; thirdly, to beneficence [v. 17; n. 1007]. 997. In regard to the first he does two things. First, he urges that benevolence be broad enough to include enemies when he says: Bless those who persecute you. Here it should be noted that to bless [bene-dicere] is to say something good. This can happen in three ways: first, by asserting a good, as when one person praises another’s good points: "The lips of many shall bless him that is liberal of his bread; and the testimony of his truth is faithful" (Sir 31:28). Secondly, by commanding: to bless in this way belongs to God by Whose command something good comes to creatu4es, or it belongs to His ministers who invoke the Lord’s name upon the people: "Thus shall you bless the sons of Israel and say to them: The Lord bless you and guard you. The Lord show His face to you and have mercy on you. The Lord turn His countenance toward you and give you peace" (Num 6:22-26); "They shall invoke my name upon the people of Israel and I will bless them" (Num 6:27). Thirdly, one blesses by desiring: "Nor did they who passed by say: "The blessing of the Lord be upon you.’" (Os 129:8). To bless in this way is to will someone’s good and, as it were, to pray for his good. This is the way it is taken here. 998. Hence, this directive, to bless those who persecute you, shows that we must have good will even toward enemies and persecutors by desiring their welfare and praying for them: "Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you" (Mt 5:44). 493 This directive can be interpreted in one way as a precept and in another as a counsel. For we are commanded to love our enemies in such a way as not to exclude them from our general love of neighbor and from the prayer one makes for all believers. We are also obliged to show the effect of this love of one’s enemies in particular cases of critical need. Hence it says in Ex (23:4): "If you meet your enemy‘s ox or ass going astray, rescue it." But for anyone to give his enemies the benefit of his help beyond cases of manifest need or to say special prayers and indicate a feeling of love in a special way pertains to the perfection of the counsels, because it shows that a person’s love of God is so advanced that it triumphs over all human hatred. However, one who repents and seeks forgiveness should no longer be reckoned an enemy or persecutor; hence, there should be no difficulty in showing him marks of charity: "Forgive your neighbor if he has hurt you: and then your sins shall be forgiven when you pray" (Sir 28:2). 999. Secondly, he teaches that good-will should be pure, i.e., not mixed with its opposite. Hence he says: Bless and do not curse them, i.e., so bless that in no way do you curse. This is against those who bless with their mouth and curse in their heart: "They speak words of peace to their neighbor, but have evil in their hearts" (Ps 27:3). It is also against those who sometimes bless and sometimes curse, or bless some and curse others: "From the same mouth come blessing and cursing. My brethren, this ought not to be so" (Jas 2:10); "Do not return reviling for reviling" (I Pt 3:9). 1000. But the fact that many curses are found in Sacred Scripture seems to be against this. For Dt (27:26) says: "Cursed be he that does not abide in the words of this law and does not fulfill them in work." 494 The answer is that to curse [male-dicere] is to say something evil [malum dicere]. As with blessing, this can happen in three ways, namely, by asserting, by commanding and by desiring; and in each of these ways something good can be done and something evil. For something materially evil can be called evil in any of these ways. If it is called evil but has a good aspect, this is blessing rather than cursing and is not illicit. For a thing is judged more according to its form than its matter. But if someone says evil under the aspect of evil, he is speaking evil formally; hence it is altogether illicit. Both of these cases occur when someone makes known an evil by asserting it. For sometimes a person asserts that something is evil, in order to make known a necessary truth. Hence, he asserts evil under the aspect of a necessary truth, which is something good; hence it is licit. This is the way Job (3:1) is said to have cured his day, when he asserted the evil of the present life, just as the Apostle did in Eph (5:17): "Making the most of the time, because the days are evil." But sometimes a person asserts someone’s evil under the aspect of evil, namely, to detract from his good name; and this is illicit. For it is stated in I Cor (6:10): "The evil-tongued shall not possess God’s kingdom." 1001. Similarly, when one says something evil by commanding it can happen that he says something materially evil but under a good aspect. For example, it is licit for a person in authority to command that someone undergo the evil of punishment, when it is just. In this way violators of the law are cursed, i.e., justly subjected to punishment. 495 But when someone commands another’s evil unjustly, for example from hatred and revenge, such a curse is illicit: "He that curses his father or mother shall die the death" (Ex 21:17). 1002. It is the same with regard to saying something evil by desiring. For if the evil is desired under the aspect of good, for example, that through adversity a person may make spiritual progress, it is licit: "I have seen a fool with a firm root: and at once I cursed his beauty" (Jb 5:3). But if this is done from hatred and revenge, it is altogether illicit: "The Philistine cursed David by his gods" (1 Sam 17:43). 1003. Then when he says: Rejoice with those that rejoice, He teaches about concord: first, he sets out nature of concord; secondly, the obstacles to it [v. 16b; n. 1006]. 1004. Concord can be considered in two ways [cf. n. 1005]. In one way, as regards the effect it produces in reacting to good and evil. In regard to good it makes one rejoice in the good of others; hence he says: Rejoice with those that rejoice: "I am glad and rejoice with you all" (Phil 2:17). But this refers to rejoicing with one who rejoices in the good. For there are some who take joy in evil: "Some are glad when they have done evil, and rejoice in things most wicked" (Pr 2:17). In such cases one must not rejoice with others, for in I Cor (13:6) it is said of charity that "it does not rejoice over wickedness but rejoices in the truth." 496 In regard to evil the effect of concord is that it makes one grieve over another’s evil. Hence, he says: Weep with those who weep: "I wept for him who was afflicted" (Jb 30:25); "Comfort them that weep, and walk with them that mourn" (Si 7:38). For the compassion of a commiserating friend itself brings consolation in two ways: first, because it is convincing proof of friendship: "In a man’s adversity his friend is known" (Si 12:9), and that itself is a joy, namely, to know that one has a true friend. Secondly, because the condolence of a friend implies that he is offering to carry the burden which causes the sorrow, and it is easier when a burden is carried by two than by one person alone. 1005. Secondly, concord consists in unity of opinion. In regard to this he says: Live in harmony with one another, i.e., agree on the same matters: "That all of you agree and that there be no dissensions among you" (I Cor 1:10); "Complete my joy by being of the same mind" (Phil 2:2). Yet it should be noted that there are two kinds of opinion: one pertains to the intellect’s judgment about speculative matters, such as are considered in geometry and astronomy. Disagreement here does not militate against friendship or love, because love exists in the will, whereas judgments about these matters do not arise from the will but from the necessity of reason. The other opinion pertains to reason’s judgment about actions. Disagreement in these is contrary to love, because such dissension involves contrariety of will. And because faith is not only speculative but also practical inasmuch as it functions through love, as is stated in Gal (5:6), dissent from correct faith is contrary to love. 497 1006. Then when he says, not minding high things, he removes the two obstacles to concord. The first is pride which inclines one to pursue his own excellence inordinately and to refuse subjection, as the same time desiring to subject someone else and impede his excellence. From this follows discord: "Among the proud there are always quarrels" (Pr 13:10). Hence to remove this obstacle he says: not minding high things, so that you seek inordinately your own excellence: Do not be proud, but stand in awe" (Rom 11:20). But consenting to the humble, i.e., accept humble things, i.e., when it is fitting, do not refuse what seems to be lowly: "I prefer to be one of no account in the house of my God" (Ps 83:11); "Humble yourselves under the mighty hand of God" (Pt 5:6). The second obstacle to concord is over-confidence in one’s wisdom or one’s prudence, so that the opinion of others is not believed. To remove this he says: Do not be prudent in your own conceits, so that you judge as prudent only what seems so according to you: "Woe to you that are wise in your own eyes and prudent in your own conceits" (Is 5:21); "Lest you be wise in your own conceits" (Rom 11:25). 1007. Then when he says, Repay, he teaches what pertains to beneficence by excluding its contrary: first, he teaches not to do evil to another for revenge; secondly, he teachings not to do evil for the sake of defense [v. 19; n. 1011]. 1008. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he forbids revenge when he says: Repay no one evil for evil: "If I have returned evil for evil" (Ps 7:5); "Do not repay evil with evil" (I Pt 3:9). 498 But this must be understood in a formal sense, as when we spoke above of evil. For we are forbidden to return evil for evil when it is inspired by hatred or envy, so that we take pleasure in another’s evil. But if in return for the evil of guilt which someone commits a judge pronounces an evil of punishment in a just way to compensate for malice, he does, indeed, return evil materially, but formally and in itself he returns a good. Hence, when a judge hangs a criminal for murder, he does not return evil for evil but good for evil. This is the way the Apostle handed over to Satan the man guilty of incest, "for the destruction of the flesh, that his spirit may be saved" (I Cor 5:5). 1009. Secondly, he shows hat even good things must be provided for our neighbor, saying: Take thought for what is noble in the sight of all, so that you do things pleasing to men: "Give no offense to Jews or to Greeks, or to the church of God, just as I try to please all men in everything I do" (1 Cor 11:32). But this can be done properly and improperly. For if it is done for human approval, it is not proper conduct: "Beware of practicing your piety before men in order to be seen by them" (Mt 6:1). But it is proper, when it is done for the glory of God: "Let your light so shine before men, that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who is in heaven" (Mt 5:16). 1010. Thirdly, he gives the reason for this advice. For we should refrain from returning evil and should provide good things in the sight of all, in order that we might be at peace with men; therefore, he adds: Live peaceably with all. But he qualifies this when he says: if possible. For sometimes other people’s malice prevents us from having peace with them, namely, because no peace is possible 499 with them unless we consent to their malice. Such peace, of course, is illicit: "I came not to send peace but the sword" (Mt 10:34). Another qualifier is added when he says: so far as it depends on you, i.e., even if they act against peace, we should do all in our power to preserve peace with them: "I am for peace; but when I speak, they are for war" (Ps 120:7). 1011. Then when he says, Never avenge, he shows that we should not do evil to our neighbor in vengeance. First, he presents the teaching: You should not avenge yourselves, dearly beloved, but as is said of Christ: "I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to those who pulled out the beard" (Is 50:6) and "Like a sheep that before its shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth" (Is 53:7). Hence, the Lord Himself commanded: "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also" (Mt 5:39). But, as Augustine says, the things done by holy men in the New Testament are valid examples for understanding the commands given in Scripture. For the Lord Himself, when He was struck on the cheek, did not say: "Here is the other cheek," but "If I have spoken ill, give testimony of the evil; but if well, why do you strike me." This shows that one must be prepared in the heart to offer the other cheek. For the Lord was prepared not only to offer the other cheek for man’s salvation but His whole body to be crucified. 1012. Secondly, he assigns the reason when he says: but leave it to the wrath of God, i.e., to divine judgment. As if to say: Entrust yourself to God Who can defend and vindicate you by His judgment, as it says in I Pt (5:7): "Cast all your anxieties on him, for he cares about you." 500 But this applies to cases in which no opportunity is left to us to do otherwise according to justice. But because, as it says in Dt (1:17): "Judgment is the Lord’s, "when someone authorized by a judge seeks vengeance in order to repress malice and not because of hatred, or on the authority of his superior procures his own defense, he is understood to leave matters to the wrath of God, since magistrates are God’s ministers. Hence, even Paul obtained a bodyguard against the plots of the Jews (Ac 23:12ff). 1013. Then when he says, As it is written, he proves what he had said: first, by an authority; secondly, by reason [v. 21; n. 1015]. 1014. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he proves what he said about revenge being forbidden, saying: Leave it to the wrath of God, i.e., to divine judgment, for it is written: "Vengeance is mine, I will repay, says the Lord." (Dt 32:35). Our text has this: "Vengeance is mine, and I will repay in due time"; "God the Lord of vengeance" (Ps 93:1); "The Lord is a jealous God, an avenger" (Nah 1:2). Secondly, he proves what he said about kindness to one’s enemies by an appeal an authority. First, he presents the scriptural teaching that we help enemies who are in danger of death, because this binds by a necessity of precept, as stated earlier. And this is what it says: If your enemy is hungry, feed him; if he is thirsty, give him drink: "Do good to those who hate you" (Mt 5:44). Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying: for by so doing you will heap burning coals upon his head. This can be given a sinister interpretation, so that the sense would be: if you do good to him, your good will turn out evil for him, because from it he will 501 incur eternal fire by his ingratitude. But this sense is opposed to charity, against which a person would be acting, if he helped someone, so that the help would turn out evilly for him. Therefore, it must be given a good sense, namely, by doing so,, i.e., helping them in time of need, burning coals, i.e., the love of charity, of which Song 8(:6) says, "the lamps thereof are as lamps of fire and flame"; you shall heap, i.e., gather together, upon his head, i.e., on his mind. For, as Augustine says: "There is no greater incitement to love than to be the first to love. For the man is exceedingly hard who, though unwilling to bestow love, refuses to return love." 1015. Then when he says, do not be overcome by evil, he proves what he had said by reason. For it is natural to man that he wish to overcome his adversary and not be overcome by him. But that is overcome by another which is drawn to that other, as water is overcome by fire, when it is drawn to the heat of fire. Therefore, if a good man, on account of the evil done him by another, is drawn to do evil in return, the good man is overcome by the evil. If, on the other hand, on account of a favor which the good man does for his persecutor, he draws the latter to his love, the good man overcomes the evil.

1016. After showing how man should behave toward God by using the gifts of His grace [n. 953], the Apostle now shows how man could comport himself toward his neighbor. 503 First, in regard to superiors; secondly, toward all [v. 8; n. 1044]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he urges men to the subjection owed to superiors; secondly, to show the sign of subjection [v. 6; n. 1037]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he proposes his teaching; secondly, he assigns a reason [v. 1b; n. 1020]; thirdly, he draws the conclusion [v. 5; n. 1036]. 1017. In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some believers said that they should not be subject to earthly powers on account of the freedom they received from Christ, since it says in Jn (8:36): If the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed." But the freedom granted by Christ is a freedom of the spirit, by which we are set free of sin and death, as was said above (8:2): "The law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set me free from the law of sin and death." The flesh, however, remains subject to slavery, as was stated above (7:14). Therefore, the time when a man freed by Christ will not be liable to any subjection, either spiritual or carnal, will be "when Christ delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every authority and power" (I Cor 15:24). In the meantime, as long as we live in the flesh, we are subject to temporal rulers; hence it says in Eph (6:5): "Servants, obey your masters in the flesh." And that is what the Apostle says here: Let every soul be subject to the higher powers. 504 What he calls higher powers are men established in power, to whom we owe subjection according to the order of justice: "Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution, whether it be to the emperor as supreme or to governors as sent by him" (I Pt 2:13). 1018. And he says indefinitely higher powers so that we may subject ourselves to them by reason of the sublimity of their office, even if they are wicked: "Be submissive to your masters, not only to the kind and gentle, cut also to the overbearing" (I Pt 2:18). 1019. The words every soul are to be taken as a synecdoche for "every man," as we find in Gen 17(:14), "That soul shall be destroyed from among his people." And he uses this figure of speech because we owe subjection to the authorities from the soul, i.e., from a pure will: "Not serving to the eye, as though pleasing men, but from the soul with a good will." 1020. Then when he says, For there is no authority, he presents the reason for this admonition: first, because subjection is honorable; secondly, because it is necessary [v. 2b; n. 1026]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents two principles; secondly, he concludes from them [v. 2; n. 1025]. 1021. First, therefore, he speaks about the source of power, saying: There is no power except from God. For whatever is said in common of God and creatures, comes to creatures from God, as in the case of wisdom: "All wisdom comes from God" (Sir 1:1). But power is 505 said of God and of men: "God does not abandon the powers, since He is powerful" (Jb 35:5). Hence, it follows that all human power is from God: "The most high rules the kingdom of men, and gives it to whom he will" (Dan 4:17); "You would have no power over me, unless it had been given you from above" (Jn 19:11). 1022. But a passage in Hosea seems to be against this: "They made kings, but not through me. They set up princes, but without my knowledge" (Hos 8:4). The answer is that royal power or the power associated with any other dignity can be considered from three aspects. First, in regard to the power itself, which is from God "through whom Kings reign," as it says in Pr (8:15). Secondly, in regard to the way in which power is obtained: from this aspect, power is from God sometimes, namely, when a person obtains it rightfully, as it says in Heb (5:4): "One does not take the honor upon himself, but he is called by God, as Aaron was." But sometimes it is not from God but from a man’s perverse desire, which obtains power through ambition or some other unlawful manner: "Have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves?" (Am 6:13). Thirdly, it can be considered in regard to its use, and then it is from God sometimes, as when a person observes the precepts of divine justice in using the power granted him: "By me kings rule" (Pr 8:15). But sometimes it is not from God, as when a person uses power given to him to act against divine justice: "The kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the Lord and his anointed" (Ps 2:2). 1023. The question arises whether the power to sin is from God. 506 The answer is that the power by which one sins is from God. For it is the same power that is employed in sinning and in doing right: but that it is directed to good is from God; that it is directed to sin is due to a defect of the creature, inasmuch as it springs from nothingness. 1024. Secondly, he states that those that exist have been instituted by God, the reason being that God made all things through His wisdom, for it says in Ps 104 (v. 24): "In wisdom hast thou made all." But it is the function of wisdom to dispose of things in order: "She reaches mightily from one end of the earth to the other, and she orders all things well" (Wis 8:1). Therefore, divine effects must be orderly: "Do you know the ordinances of the heavens" (Jb 38:33). But God has established a twofold order in His effects: one, whereby all things are ordained to Him: "The Lord has made everything for himself" (Pr 16:4); the other is that whereby divine effects are ordained one to another, as Dt (4:19) says of the sun and the moon and the stars, that He made them to serve all nations. 1025. Then when he says, therefore, he who, he draws the conclusion. For if the power of rulers is from God and nothing is from God without order, it follows that the order whereby the lower are subjected to the higher powers is form God. Therefore, he who acts against the order and resists the authority, resists what God has appointed: "They have not rejected you, but they have rejected me" (1 Sam 8:7); "He who rejects you rejects me" (Lk 10:16). But to resist the divine order is contrary to the good of virtue. Hence, whoever resists power in anything that pertains to the order of this power acts against virtue. 507 1026. Then when he says, those who resist, he shows that this subjection is not only virtuous but necessary. First he states his proposition; secondly, he proves it [v. 3; n. 1029]. 1027. He says, therefore: It has been sated that he who resists the authorities resists what God has appointed, and this should be avoided as contrary to virtue. Yet there are many who have no love for virtue and who do not detest things contrary to virtue. Such persons must be compelled to avoid evil by punishments. In regard to this he says: Those who resist the divine ordinance will incur condemnation for acting against the order of authority. This can be understood in one way as referring to eternal damnation, which is incurred by those who refuse to be subject to authority in matters in which they should be subject. As an example of this, Dathan and Abiron, who resisted Moses and Aaron, were swallowed up by the earth, as it says in Num (16:20). In another way it can be understood as referring to the punishments imposed by the authorities themselves: "The dread wrath of a king is like the growling of a lion; he who provokes him to anger forfeits his life" (Pr 20:2). 1028. But against this is the fact that the apostles and martyrs seem to have resisted rulers and authorities and did not receive damnation from God as a result but rather a reward. The answer is that the Apostle is now speaking of one who resists a lower power as established by God. But the divine order requires that a lower power not be obeyed in opposition to a higher one, as a duke is not obeyed against a king. And every human 508 power is set under the divine power, so that no human power should be obeyed against God, as it says in Ac (5:29): "We must obey God rather than men." 1029. Then, when he says, For rulers, he assigns the reason for what he had said. First, he presents the reason; secondly, from this reason he draws a useful teaching [v. 3b; n. 1031]; thirdly, he shows the necessity of this teaching [v. 4b; n. 1035]. 1030. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that those who resist authority will incur condemnation, for rulers, who are here called powers, are not a terror, i.e., a cause of terror, to good conduct, i.e., because of good conduct, but to bad, i.e., because of bad conduct. It seems that this should be understood with reference to the reason for establishing rulers. For the reason why rulers are established is in order that those who are not inclined by any love of virtue to avoid evil and do good, may do so by fear of punishment: "A king who sits on the throne of judgment winnows all evil with his eyes" (Pr 20:8). And according to this interpretation it says that rulers are not a terror to good conduct but to bad as regards what rulers do in virtue of their office, as Is 32(:8) says, "But the prince will devise such things as are worthy of a prince." This can also refer to evil rulers, who are not a terror to good conduct, but to bad. For even though they sometimes unjustly persecute those who do good, the latter have no reason to fear; because if they endure it patiently, it turns out for their good: "Even if you do suffer for righteousness’ sake, you will be blessed. Have no fear of them, nor be troubled" (I Pt 3:14). 509 From what is said here the reason can be assigned why those who resist authority incur condemnation, whether it be the punishment inflicted by rulers on those who rebel, or the damnation by which men are punished by God. For if rulers are a terror to bad conduct, it follows that those who resist their authority are acting wickedly and thus are the cause of their temporal and eternal punishment. 1031. Then when he says, Would you have no fear, he draws a useful teaching from what he had said, namely, how to avoid the terror of rulers. First, he suggests by his question that this is desirable, saying: Would you have no fear of him who is in authority? As if to say: this should appeal to a person: "As the roar of a lion, so is the terror of a king" (Pr 20:2). 1032. Secondly, he shows how to avoid this fear, saying: Do what is good. For it says in Pr (16:13): "Righteous lips are the delight of a king," and in Ps 101 (v. 6): "He who walks in the way that is blameless shall minister to me." 1033. Thirdly, he shows the effect of this, saying: If you do what is good, you will not only avoid evil but you will receive his approval. This is obvious when one considers the reason why authority is established. For it is established not only to keep us from evil conduct through fear of punishment but also to induce us to good conduct through rewards, as it says in I Pt (2:14): "Be subject to governors as sent by the emperor to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right." This is also true of evil rulers, whose unjust persecution ends in praise for those who endure it patiently: "We call those happy who were steadfast" (Jas 5:11). 1034. Fourthly, he assigns the reason, saying: For he is God’s minister for your good. This is clear in regard to the proper order of rulers. For they are under the 510 authority of God, the supreme ruler, as His ministers: "Because as ministers of his kingdom, you did not rule rightly" (Wis 6:4). But the ruler and the ministers work for the same end: "Like the magistrate of the people, so are his officials" (Sir 10:2). Therefore, just as God works for the good of those who do good, so also do rulers, if they perform their office properly. Furthermore, even wicked rulers are God’s ministers for inflicting punishments according to God’s plan; although this is not their intention: "Ah, Assyria, the rod of my anger, the staff of my fury" (Is 10:5) "But he does not so intend" (v. 7). And also because such wicked rulers sometimes afflict good men, God permitting who profit thereby; for "we know that in everything God works for the good with those who love him" (Rom 8:28). 1035. Then when he says, But if you do wrong, he shows the necessity of this teaching. For it has been stated that if you do right, you will not fear authority; but if you do wrong, be afraid, because you have reason to fear: "Destruction to evildoers" (Pr 10:29); "Wickedness is a cowardly thing, condemned by its own testimony" (Wis 17:11). Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying: for he does not bear the sword in vain. He uses language in keeping with the practice of rulers who carried the instruments of punishment as signs of their power; for example, a bundle of rods for whipping, and axes or swords for killing: "Be afraid of the sword, for wrath brings the punishment of the sword" (Jb 19:29). Thirdly, he explains the reason, saying: He carries the sword, because he is God’s minister to execute his wrath, i.e., God’s wrath, i.e., His just judgment, on the 511 wrongdoers: "Those who do evil are an abomination to kings, for the throne is established by righteousness" (Pr 16:12). From this it is clear that it is not only lawful but meritorious for rulers to execute vengeance on the wicked, when it is done out of zeal for justice. 1036. Then when he says, therefore, one must be subject, he draws the main conclusion, saying: Therefore, i.e., for the reasons given, one must be subject to rulers of necessity, namely, because this is necessary for salvation, or be subject voluntarily to the necessity whereby the ruler’s power inclines you to do right of necessity; not only to avoid God’s wrath, which pertains to the first reason, because he who resists authority resists what God has appointed: "Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities" (*** 3:1). 1037. Then when he says, for the same reason, he urges men to show the sign of their subjection to authority: first, he mentions the sign of subjection; secondly, he urges them to render the sign of subjection [v. 7; n. 1042]. 1038. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he mentions the signs of subjection, saying: For the same reason you also pay taxes, i.e., because you are subject, you should pay taxes as a sign of that subjection. Therefore, in a complaining way it says in Lam (1:1); "She that was a princess among the cities has become a vassal." 1039. Secondly, he assigns the reason, saying; for the authorities are the minister of God, attending, on behalf of God and the people, to this very thing, i.e., to receiving tribute. 512 As if to say: Everyone should make a living from his ministry, for it says in I Cor ((:7): "Who tends a flock without getting some of the milk?" And therefore, since our rulers minister to God in governing, they should receive taxes from the people as wages for their ministry and should not look upon it as a reward. For the special reward of a ruler is praise and honor, as the Philosopher says in book five of the Ethics. When this does not satisfy him, he becomes a tyrant. But this should not be understood as referring only to human praise or honor, because such a reward would be futile, but to divine praise and honor, which is bestowed on those who rule well: "O monarchs over the people, honor wisdom, that you may reign forever" (Wis 6:21). Furthermore, they receive these taxes as sustenance, and rulers labor for the peace of all. Hence it says in 2 Tim (2:1): "I urge that supplications be made for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a quiet and peaceful life"; "Pray for the life of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, that we may live under his shadow" (Bar 1:11). Clerics are free of this debt because of a privilege granted by rulers, which is in fact equitable by nature. Even among the Gentiles those who were devoted to divine things were free from taxation. For we read in Gen 47(:20-22) that Joseph subjected to Pharaoh the entire land of Egypt "except the land of the priests, which had been given them by the king, and to whom also a certain allowance of food was given out of the public stores." And further down it says in the whole land of Egypt, the fifth part of the harvests was paid except for in the land of the priests, which was free from this condition. But this is also equitable, because just as kings have care of the public good in temporal affairs, so God’s ministers in spiritual matters. And so by ministering to God in 513 spiritual matters, they are making a return to the king for his labor in procuring a peaceful life for them. 1041. But it should be noted that although he says that taxes are owed to rulers as a wage for their labors, rulers can sin in two ways by accepting taxes. First, if they do not procure the people’s welfare but are intent only on seizing their goods. Hence it says in Ez (34:si3): "You eat the fat, you clothe yourselves with the wool, you slaughter the fatlings, but you do not feed the sheep." Secondly, if they violently take more than the law permits and more than the people can bear. Hence it says in Mic (3:1): "Hear, you heads of Jacob and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not you who tear the skin from my people, and their flesh from their bones?" 1042. Then when he says, Pay all, he admonishes them to render the above-mentioned sign of subjection. First, in general, saying: Inasmuch as taxes are owed to rulers, as to God’s ministers, pay all of them their dues. From this it is clear that justice requires subjects to render rulers their due: "To the king was brought one who owed him ten thousand talents" (Mt 18:24); "Render, therefore, to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s and to God the things that are God’s" (Mt 22:21). Secondly, he specifies debts that are paid publicly, saying: taxes to whom taxes are due, for these are paid to the ruler that he might govern the country in peace and quiet: "He saw that a resting place was good, and that the land was pleasant" (Gen 49:15). Revenue to whom revenue is due. This is paid to the ruler in certain places as 514 tolls, for the repair of roads and for safe travel. Or they are the expenses incurred, when the ruler travels through his country. Secondly, he sets out those things which should be rendered interiorly. Here it should be noted that a ruler is owed fear and honor: fear, because he is lord and uses his power to prevent evil men from doing evil: "If I am the Lord, where is my fear?" (Mal 1:6). Hence he says: fear to whom fear is due: "My son, fear the Lord and the king" (Pr 24:21). But inasmuch as the ruler is like a father providing benefits, he deserves praise and honor: "If I am a father, where is my honor?" (Mal 1:6). Therefore, he adds: honor to whom honor is due: "Honor the king (I Pt 2:17). The opposite view is expressed in Lev (19:5): "You shall not defer to the powerful." But this should be interpreted as forbidding a person to deviate from justice to benefit the powerful. Hence it continues: "but in justice shall you judge your neighbor."

1044. Having shown how believers should observe justice toward superiors [n. 1016], the Apostle now shows how they should behave toward everyone generally. In regard to this he does two things: first, he states his intention; secondly, he gives a reason [v. 8b; n. 1048]. 1045. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that you must pay your debts to all, not in part but entirely. And that is what he says: Owe no one anything. As if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely, one anything. As if to say: you should pay all you owe to everyone so completely, that nothing still owing remains. And this for two reasons: first, because sin is committed in delaying to pay, as long as a person unjustly holds back what belongs to another. Hence it says in Lev (19:13): "The wages of a hired servant shall not remain with you all night until the morning." And the same is true of other debts. Secondly, because as long as a person owes, he is in a certain sense a slave and is obligated to the one to who he owes: "The borrower is the slave of the lender" (Pr 22:7). 1046. But there are some debts from which a man can never absolve himself. This happens in two ways: in one way on account of the excellence of the benefit for which equal payment cannot be made, as the Philosopher says of honor owed to God or parents, as it says in Ps 116 (v. 12): "What shall I render to the Lord for all his bounty to me?" In another way on account of the debt’s cause, which always remains; or even because what is paid is never terminated but always increases as one pays. 516 1047. For these reasons the debt of fraternal love is paid in such a way that it is always owing. First, because we owe love to our neighbor on account of God, Whom we can never recompense sufficiently. For it says in I Jn (4:2): "This commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also." Secondly, because the cause of love always remains, namely, being alike in nature and in grace: "Every animal loves its like, and every person his neighbor" (Sir 13:15). Thirdly, the cause love does not diminish but grows by loving: "It is my prayer that your love may abound more and more" (Phil 1:9). Therefore, he says: except to love one another, because the debt of love is paid once in such a way that it always remains under the debt of a precept: "This is my commandment, that you love one another" (Jn 15:12). 1048. Then when he says, He who loves his neighbor, he assigns the reason for the statement that we are never released from the debt of love, namely, because the whole fulfillment of the Law consists in love. Hence he does three things in regard to this: first, he states his proposition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 9; n. 1050]; thirdly, he draws the conclusion intended [v. 10b; n. 1059]. 1049. First, therefore, he says: The reason why we cannot expect to free ourselves from the debut of love, as we do from other debts is that he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law, i.e., the whole fulfillment of the Law depends on love of neighbor. 517 But this does not seem to be true. For it says in I Tim (1:5): "The end of the precept is love." For a thing is made perfect when it attains its end; therefore, the whole perfection of the Law consists in love. But love as two acts, namely, the love of God and the love of neighbor; hence the Lord says in Mt (22:40) that the whole law and the prophets depend on the two precepts of love: one of which is concerned with the love of God and the other with the love of neighbor. Therefore, it does not seem that one who loves his neighbor fulfills the whole Law. The answer is that love of neighbor pertains to love and fulfills the Law, when it is a love by which the neighbor is loved for God. So the love of God is included in the love of neighbor, just as the cause is included in its effect. For it says in I Jn (4:21): "this commandment we have from him, that he who loves God should love his brother also." Conversely, love of neighbor is included in love of God, as the effect in its cause; hence it says in the same place: "If anyone says, ‘I love God,’ and hates his brother, he is a liar." That is why in Sacred Scripture sometimes mention is made only of the love of God, as though it is enough for salvation, as in Dt (10:12): "And now, Israel, what does the Lord you God require of you, but to fear the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, and to love him"; and sometimes mention is made of love of neighbor: "This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you" (Jn 15:12). 1050. Then when he says, the commandments, he proves his proposition: first, by induction; secondly, by use of a middle term in a syllogism [v. 10; n. 1058]. 518 1051. In regard to the first he proceeds inductively by enumerating certain precepts which fulfill the love of neighbor. And because the three precepts of the first tablet are more directly ordained to the love of God, he does not mention them; although they, too, are fulfilled in the love of neighbor, insofar as the love of God is included in the love of neighbor. But he enumerates the commands of the second tablet, omitting only the affirmative precept about honor to parents. By this it is understood that we should pay to all whatever we owe. 1052. He lists the negative precepts, which forbid a person to do evil to his neighbor. And this for two reasons. First, because the negative precepts are more universal both as to time and as to persons. As to time, because the negative precepts oblige always and at every moment. For there is no time when one may steal or commit adultery. Affirmative precepts, on the other hand, oblige always but not at every moment, but at certain times and places: for a man is not obliged to honor his parents every minute of the day, but at certain times and places. Negative precepts are more universal as to persons, because no man may be harmed. Secondly, because they are more obviously observed by love of neighbor than are the affirmative. For a person who loves another, rather refrains from harming him than gives him benefits, which he is sometimes unable to give. 1053. But a person does injury to his neighbor in three ways: by action, by word and by desire. 519 He does injury by action in three ways: first, against the neighbor’s person, and this is forbidden when he says: You shall not kill. This also forbids any injury against the neighbor’s person: "No murderer has eternal life abiding in him" I Jn (3:15). Secondly, against a person’s wife; and this is forbidden when he says: You hall not commit adultery. This also forbids fornication and any unlawful use of the genital organs: "God will judge fornicators and adulterers" (Heb 13:4). Thirdly, against one’s external goods, and this is forbidden when he says: You shall not steal. This also forbids any unjust taking of what belongs to another, either by force or by deceit: "Everyone who steals will be judged" (Zech 5:3). 1054. Injury committed by word against one’s neighbor is forbidden when he says: You shall not bear false witness. This is forbidden not only in court cases but also outside, whether in the form of detraction or of insults: "The false witness will not go unpunished, and one who speaks lies will not escape (Pr 19:5). Injury committed only by desire against one’s neighbor is forbidden when he says: You shall not covet your neighbor’s good; and this also forbids coveting another’s wife: "For I would not have known covetousness" to be a sin, "if the law had not said, ‘You shall not covet.’" (Rom 7:7). 1055. Having listed a number of precepts, he combines all others in one general precept, saying: and any other commandment, affirmative or negative, referring to God or to neighbor, is summed up, i.e., fulfilled, in this sentence: You shall love your neighbor as yourself. 1056. When he says, your neighbor, the reference is to all men and also the good angels, as Augustine says. For a neighbor is anyone who shows mercy to another, as it 520 says in Lk (10:36): "Which of these three, do you think, proved neighbor to the men who fell among robbers? He said: ‘The one who showed mercy on him.’" And because a neighbor is neighbor to a neighbor, the consequence is that even a person shown mercy by another is said to be his neighbor. But the good angels show mercy to us; and we should show mercy to all men and receive it from them, when necessary. Hence it is clear that the good angels and all men are our neighbors, because the happiness toward which we are tending is already theirs, or they are tending toward it with us. From this reason it is clear that devils are not our neighbors and that we are not commanded to love them, because they are entirely excluded from the love of God and are not included in the list of neighbors but of enemies. 1057. The phrase, as yourself, does not refer to equality of love, as though a person were bound to love his neighbor as much as himself. For this would be against the ordering of charity, by which a person is obliged to take more care of his own salvation than that of others: "He put love in order in me" (S of S 2:4). It refers, rather to a similarity of love, namely, that we should love our neighbor similarly as ourselves. And this in three ways: first, as to the end of love, namely, that we love ourselves and our neighbor for the sake of God. Secondly, as to the form of love, namely, just as a person loves himself as willing good for himself, so he should love his neighbor by willing good things for him. But one who loves his neighbor in order to acquire some utility or love from him does not will good for his neighbor but wants to obtain a good for himself from his neighbor. This is the way a man is said to love irrational creatures, such as wine or a horse, namely, to use them. Thirdly, as to the effect of love, namely, that he 521 relieve the need of his neighbor, as he relieves his own; and that he do nothing unlawful out of love for his neighbor any more than he does out of love for himself. 1058. Then when he says, Love does not wrong to a neighbor, he clarifies his proposistion with the following syllogism: One who loves his neighbor does no evil to him. But the aim of every precept of the Law is abstention from evil. Therefore, one who loves his neighbor fulfills the Law. That love of neighbor does no evil is gathered from I Cor (13:4): "Love does not work injury." No matter how evil is taken here, whether for evil acts or omissions, it could refer not only to negative precepts but also to affirmative. But inasmuch as love of neighbor includes love of God, it is understood that love of neighbor excludes evil both against one’s neighbor and against God. Thus, even the precepts of the first tablet are included. 1059. Finally, he draws the conclusion mainly intended, saying: Therefore, love is the fulfilling of the law, i.e., the Law is fulfilled and made perfect by love; (Si 14:16), "Above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect harmony" (Col 3:14).

1060. After showing how man should behave in a pious manner toward God by using His gifts properly and paying his neighbor the debts owed him, the Apostle now shows how he should act with probity in regard to himself. With respect to this he does two things: first, he proposes the suitability of the time; secondly, he exhorts them to virtuous works [v. 12b; n. 1070]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he mentions the suitability of the time; secondly, he assigns the reason [v. 11b; n. 1063]; thirdly, he employs a figure of speech [v. 12; n. 1066]. 1061. First, therefore he says: We have stated what you should do. And you should do it not only for the reasons already given, but also because you know what hour it is, i.e., you ought to consider the nature of the present here, because as it says in Ec (8:6): "Every matter has its time and way"; "Even the stork in the heavens knows her times; and the turtledove, swallow and crane keep the time of their coming; but my people know not the ordinance of the Lord" (Jer 8:70). 523 1062. He shows what the time is suitable for, when he says: it is full time now for you to wake from sleep. This is not a reference to the sleep of nature, sometimes called death, as in I Th (4:13): "We would not have you ignorant concerning those who are asleep" and sometimes the repose of the animal powers, as in Jn (11:12): "If he is asleep, he will recover." Nor is it a reference to the sleep of grace, sometimes called the repose of eternal glory, as in Ps 4 (v. 9): "In peace I will lie down and sleep" and sometimes the rest of contemplation even in this life: "I slept, but my heart was awake" (Song 5:3). But it is a reference to the sleep of guilt, as in Eph (5:14): "Awake, O sleeper, and arise from the dead," or to the sleep of negligence, as in Pr (6:9): "How long will you lie there, O sluggard?" Therefore, it is full time now to wake from the sleep of guilt by doing penance: "Awake after you have rested" (Ps 127:2) and from the sleep of negligence by taking care to act properly: "Arise, O princes, oil the shield!" (Is 21:5); "Let not the hour for rising sadden you." (Sir 32:15). 1063. Then when he says, For salvation, he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying: For salvation is nearer to us now than when we first believed. The Apostle is referring to the salvation of eternal life about which it is said: "My salvation will be for ever" (Is 51:8). Man is ordained to this salvation, fist of all, by faith: "He that believes and is baptized will be saved" (Mk 16:16). But man gets closer and closer to it by good works and increased love: "Draw near to God and he will draw near to you" (Jas 4:8). This, therefore, is what the Apostle says: It is full time now for you to rise from sleep, for now, when we have made progress by good works and increased love, our 524 salvation, namely of eternal life, is nearer than when we first believed, i.e., than when we originally received the faith. 1064. This nearness can be understood in two ways. First, in regard to time, by which holy men, as they make progress in good works, draw closer to the end of this life, after which they receive their reward. The other is the nearness of preparation, because by increased love and good works performed, a man is prepared for that salvation: "Those who were ready went in with him to the marriage feast" (Mt 25:10). 1065. But inasmuch as the Church reads these words during Advent, they seemed to refer to the salvation which Christ worked during His first coming. Accordingly, we can understand the Apostle speaking in place of all believers since the beginning of the world. For as the time of Christ’s incarnation drew near, and the predictions of the prophets grew in number, it could be said: "Our salvation," namely, Christ "is nearer now than when we believed," i.e., when men in the very beginning stated to believe in the future coming of Christ: "Soon my salvation will come and my deliverance be revealed" (Is 56:11). They can also be taken to refer to the time of mercy, when one begins willing to depart from past sins. For at that time he is closer to his salvation than previously, when he had a dead faith: "Resist the devil and he will flee from you. Draw near to God and he will draw near to you" (Jas 4:7). 1066. Then when he says, the night is far gone, he uses a figure of speech to clarify his proposition. The import is that the entire time of the present life is compared to night on account of the darkness of ignorance with which the present life is 525 encumbered. "We are swallowed up in darkness" (Jb 33:4). Isaiah says of this night: "My soul yearns for thee in the night" (26:9). But the state of future happiness is compared to day on account of God’s splendor with which the saints are enlightened: "the sun shall be no more your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you by night, but he Lord will be your everlasting light" (Is 60:19). This day is referred to in Ps 118 (v. 24): "This is the day which the Lord has made; let us rejoice and be glad in it." 1067. It can also be understood that the state of guilt is being compared to night on account of the darkness of guilt. About this darkness Ps 82 (v. 5) says: "They have neither knowledge nor understanding; they walk about in darkness." About this night Wis (17:21) says: "Over those men alone heavy night was spread, an image of the darkness that was destined to receive them." But day is called the state of grace on account of the light of spiritual understanding which the righteous have, but the wicked lack: "Light dawns for the righteous" (Ps 97:11); "The light of righteousness did not shine on us" (Wis 5:6). 1068. Or it can be understood that the time before Christ’s incarnation is being compared to night, because it was not yet clear but wrapped in darkness: "We have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a lamp shining in a dark place" (2 Pt 1:19). About this night it says in Is (21:11): "Watchman, what of the night?" Hence, just as shadows appear at night, so during that time the practices of the Law were in vogue, but "these were only a shadow of what is to come" (Col 2:17). 526 But the time after Christ’s incarnation is compared to day on account of the power of the spiritual sun in the world: "But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness shall shine" (Mal 4:2). Hence the Lord says: "I must work the works of him who sent me, while it is day" (Jn 9:4); then he adds: "As long as I am in the world, I am the light of the world." 1069. The saying, the night is far gone, can be taken for any of the three nights mentioned. For a large part of the life span of those to whom he was writing was already far gone; the night of guilt had passed, as had the period of the Law before Christ. But it seems that the saying, the day is at hand, must be understood as referring to the day of future glory, which was at hand for the believers in Christ to whom he was writing, although it had not yet arrived for them. In keeping with the foregoing explanation, the time of Christ’s grace, although it had already arrived as regards the passage of time, is nonetheless described as drawing near through faith and devotion; just as it also says in Phil (4:5): "The Lord is near," and in Ps 145 (v. 18): "The Lord is near to all who call upon him." It can also apply to those who begin to repent of their sins; for such persons the day of grace is at hand. 1070. Then when he says, Let us then cast off, he concludes the exhortation to an honorable life. First he gives the exhortation; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 13b; n. 1074]. In regard to an honorable life he touches on three things. 527 1071. First, the removal of vices, as he concludes: If the night is gone, let us cast off the works of darkness, because, as it says in Ec (8:6): "Every matter has its time and way." Hence, when the night is gone, the deeds of the night should cease. Here the works of sin are called works of darkness: first, because in themselves they lack the light of reason with which man’s works should be illumined: "The wise man has eyes in his head, but the fool walks in darkness" (Ec 2:14); secondly, they are performed in the dark: "The eye of the adulterer waits for the twilight" (Jb 24:15); thirdly, because by them a person is brought to darkness: "Cast them into the darkness outside" (Mt 22:13). 1072. Secondly, he summons them to put on the virtues. As if to say: Since the day is at hand, be dressed as suits the day and put on the armor of light, i.e., the virtues, which are called armor because they protect us: "Put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil" (Eph 6:11). They are called the armor of light, because they are decorated and perfected by the light of reason; hence it says in Pr (4:18): "The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn"’; and because they are tested by light: "He who does what is true comes to the light" (Jn 3:2); and because others are enlightened by virtuous acts: "So let your light shine before men" (Mt 5:16). 1073. Thirdly, he urges them to use the virtues and make progress when he says: Let us conduct ourselves becomingly as in the day. For these two things seem suited to the day: first, becoming conduct, for in the day everyone tries to present himself becomingly before others. But not so in the night. Hence, it says in I Th (5:7): "For those who sleep sleep at night, and those who get drunk get drunk at night. But since we 528 belong to the day, let us be sober"’ hence it says in I Cor (14:40): "Let all things be done decently and in order." Secondly, man walks in the day not at night; hence it says in Jn (11:10): "If anyone walks in the night, he stumbles." Therefore, because it is day, we should walk, i.e., advance from good to better: "Walk while you have the light" (Jn 12:35). 1074. Then when he says, not in reveling, he explains what he had said. First, he explains how the works of darkness are to be cast off. These are sinful works, some of which he mentions. First, he mentions those which pertain to the corruption of the concupiscible appetite, whose corruption is intemperance in regard to pleasures of touch and to food. First, therefore, he excludes intemperate use of food when he says: not in reveling: "Be not among wine bibbers or among gluttonous eaters of meat" (Pr 23:20). This, of course, can be a mortal sin from the fact hat according to the Law one is condemned to death for this sin. For it is said of a stubborn son: "This our son is stubborn and rebellious: he is a glutton and drunkard. Then they shall stone him to death with stones" (Dt 21:22). One is said to pass the time in reveling, not if he eats with the magnificence that accords with his state, as King Ahasuerus commanded a splendid banquet to be prepared in honor of Esther, when she was made queen (Est 2:18), but when he does this beyond the limits of his state, and especially if his main interest centers on this, as those about whom it is said: "Such persons do not serve our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly" (Rom 16:18); "Their god is their belly" (Phil 3:19). 529 1075. Secondly, he excludes intemperance in drink, when he adds: and drunkenness, which refers to excessive drinking, which places a man outside the bounds of reason: "Wine created to make men glad, not drunk" (Sir 31:27). It should be noted that drunkenness is a mortal sin ex suo genere, namely when a person gets drunk on purpose, because he seems to prefer the pleasure of wine to the full use of reason. Hence it says in Is (5:22): "Woe to those who are heroes at drinking wine, and valiant men in mixing strong drink." But if one gets drunk unintentionally, for example, because he was not aware of the strength of the wine or because he did not suspect he would get drunk on such wine, it is not a mortal sin, because he did not get drunk on purpose but accidentally. However, this cannot happen with persons who get drunk frequently. Hence, Augustine says that drunkenness is a mortal sin, if it is a frequent occurrence. 1076. Thirdly, he excludes intemperance in regard to bodily rest when he says: not in debauchery [literally: not in beds], i.e., not in excessive sleep, which he fittingly forbids after reveling and drunkenness, because it follows from them. Furthermore, there can be mortal sin in this, when for the sake of bodily rest and sleep, a person neglects what he ought to do and is inclined to commit evil deeds: "Woe to those who devise wickedness and work evil upon their beds!" (Mic 2:1). The Apostle’s words can also refer to the trappings of lust. Hence the harlot is quoted as saying: "I have perfumed by bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon" (Pr 7:17). 1077. Therefore, fourthly, he fittingly excludes intemperance in regard to sex when he says: and licentiousness, i.e., venereal actions which are called shameful, because they do not avoid what is especially shameful and worthy of confusion: both 530 36 See Aristotle’s Ethics, book 2, chapter 8. because all pleasures of touch, gluttony and lust are common to us and brutes, so that one who pursues them inordinately becomes bestial; and because it is especially in venereal acts that man’s reason is totally absorbed by pleasure to such an extent that he cannot understand, as the Philosopher says in the Ethics.36 Hence it says in Hos(4:11): "Harlotry and drunkenness and wine take away the understanding"; "They did not repent over their licentiousness and fornication and uncleanness" (Rev 9:21). 1078. Then he excludes those sins which pertain to the corruption of the irascible appetite when he says: not in contentions. Contention, as Ambrose says, is an attack on the truth, performed with confident shouting. It is also possible that these words forbid all quarreling, not only in words but also in deeds, which very frequently begin with words: "It is an honor for a man to keep aloof from strife" (Pr 20:3). Contention generally arises from envy; therefore he adds: and jealousy. Hence it says in Jas (3:16): "Where jealousy and selfish ambitions exist, there will be disorder and every vile practice. 1079. Secondly, he explains how we should put on the armor of light, saying: But put on the Lord Jesus Christ in Whom all the virtues were present most abundantly according to Is (4:1): "Seven women shall take hold of one man." We put on Jesus Christ, first, by receiving the sacrament: "All you who have been baptized in Christ have put on Christ" (Gal 3:27). Secondly, by imitation. For a person who imitates Christ is said to put on Christ, because, just as a man is covered by a garment and is seen under its color, so in one who imitates Christ the works of Christ appear. Therefore, we put on the armor of light, when we put on Christ. 531 1080. Thirdly, he explains what it is to walk becomingly as in the day when he says: make no provision for the flesh to gratify its desires. For the beauty of becoming conduct lies in the fact that man does not prefer the flesh to the spirit but the spirit to the flesh: "We are not debtors to the flesh that we should live according to the flesh" (Rom 8:12).

1081. After showing how one ought to become perfect [n. 953], the Apostle now shows how the perfect should act toward the imperfect. First, he shows that they ought not scandalize or judge them; secondly, that they ought to uphold them, in chapter 15 [n. 1142]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he forbids improper judgments; 533 secondly, he forbids placing stumbling blocks before the weak [v. 13b; n. 1115]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he gives an admonition; secondly, he explains it [v. 2; n. 1083]; thirdly, he assigns a reason [v. 3b; n. 1090]. 1082. In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some of the Jews converted to Christ believed that the practices of the Law must be observed along with the Gospel, as is clear from Ac (v. 15). These the Apostle calls "weak in the faith of Christ," as though not yet perfectly believing that faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation. He calls those perfect or strong in faith who believed that the faith of Christ was to be observed without the practices of the Law. And there were some of both types among the believers in Rome. Therefore, the Apostle addresses the perfect in faith, saying: We have said that you should put on the Lord Jesus Christ, but welcome, i.e., join to yourselves in a spirit of charity and support, the man who is weak in faith, to whom can be applied the words of Wis (9:5): "I am a man who is weak and short-lived, with little understanding of judgment and laws"; "Welcome one another, therefore, as Christ has welcomed you" (Rom 15:7); "Help a poor man for the commandment’s sake" (Sir 29:9). But not for disputes of opinions, i.e., not discussing the fact that one’s opinion is contrary to another’s. For those who observed the practices of the Law considered as violators those who did not observe them; and those who did not observe them despised as errant and ignorant those who did observe them: "Their conflicting thoughts accuse or perhaps excuse them" (Rom 2:15). 534 1083. Then when he says, One believes, he explains what he had said: first, he shows who are weak in faith; secondly, how disputes over opinions are to be avoided [v. 3; n. 1089]. 1084. In regard to the first it should be noted that among the observances of the Law one dealt with distinguishing among foods, because some foods were forbidden in the Law, as is clear from Lev (11:2ff). Therefore, the Apostle mentions this in particular, saying: One believes, namely, the one perfect in faith, that he may eat anything, since he does not consider himself bound to the observance of the Law: "Not what goes into the mouth defiles a man" (Mt 15:11); "Everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanksgiving" (I Tim 4:4). 1085. It was not because they were naturally unclean that certain foods were forbidden in the Old Law. For just as in the case of words the word, "fool" signifies something not good, although the word itself is good, so in the case of animals, some animal is good according to its nature but evil in what it signifies, as a pig which signifies uncleanness. Therefore, the ancients were forbidden to eat its flesh, for in avoiding it they signified avoidance of uncleanness. For the entire life of that earlier people was centered on figures. But with the coming of Christ, Who is the truth, the figures ceased. 1086. He adds in regard to the weak: while the weak man eats only vegetables. As if to say: He eats those foods which involve nothing unclean forbidden in the Law. For among the classes of animals, say of land, sky and water, some classes were permitted and some forbidden; but no herbs or trees were forbidden, as is clear in Lev (v. 11). 535 There can be two reasons for this: one is that the produce of the earth had been granted man to eat from the beginning: "Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food" (Gen 1:29). But the first permission to eat flesh seems to have been granted after the flood. Hence it says in Gen (9:3): "As I gave you the green plants, I give you everything," I.e., types of animals. The other reason is that in Paradise man had transgressed the first prohibition about abstaining from certain fruits of the earth, as is clear in Gen (v. 3); for this reason a similar prohibition was not repeated. 1087. But since the practices of the Law ceased during the passion of Christ, it seems out of place for the Apostle to permit those weak in faith to abstain from foods forbidden in the Law, a practice no longer granted to Christians by the Church. But according to Augustine, three periods of time respecting the practices of the Law must be distinguished. The first is the time before Christ, when the practices of the Law were in full vigor and still alive. The second is the time after the passion of Christ but before the spreading of the Gospel, when the practices were dead, because no one was bound by them; and when they were practiced, no one benefited by them. Although dead, they were not death-dealing, because the Jews converted to Christ could practice them without sin. It is to this time that the Apostle refers here. The third is the time after the spreading of the Gospel, when the practices of the Law were not only dead but death-dealing, so that whoever practiced them sinned mortally. 1088. The Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1512] explains this in another way, namely, that the weak person is the one prone to fall into sensual vices. Such a person should be 536 advised to eat vegetables, i.e., mild and meager foods, which do not ferment vices, and to abstain from foods which stimulate sensual desire. But a stronger person believes that he can eat anything without danger. This difference appears between Christ’s disciples, who did not fast because they were strengthened by Christ’s presence, and the disciples of John the Baptist, who fasted. Hence, too, those who perform penances abstain from certain foods, not because they are unclean, but in order to restrain sensual desire. 1089. Then when he says, Let him who eats, he explains how to avoid differences of opinion. First, in regard to the perfect he says: Let him who eats, namely, with a secure conscience or even without danger of sensual desire, not despise him who abstains from certain foods, as weak in faith or prone to sensual vices: "Woe to you, despiser, will you not be despised in turn?" (Is 33:1); "He who rejects you rejects me" (Lk 10:16). Secondly, in regard to the weak, saying: and let him who abstains from certain foods, either because he is weak in faith or because he is prone to sensual desire, not pass judgment on him who eats as though he were a transgressor of the Law or as rushing headlong into sensual vices: "Judge not that you may not be judged" (Mt 7:1); "You have no excuse, O man, when you judge another" (Rom 2:1). 1090. Then when he says, for God has welcomed him, he assigns two reasons why we should abstain from false judgment. The second is given at his Master [v. 4b; n. 1094]; the third at You who judge [v. 10; n. 1105]. The first reason is based on the authority of the one judging, hence: first, he shows that this authority belongs to God [v. 3c]; 537 secondly, he concludes that judgment does not belong to men [v. 4; n. 1092]. 1091. First, therefore, he says: I have been correct in saying that one who eats should not judge him who does not, for God has welcomed him: "I took two staff," i.e., two peoples (Zech 11:7); "He drew me out of many waters" (Ps 18:16). But the one who is drawn to the judgment of a superior should not be judged by an inferior. 1092. Therefore, he concludes, Who are you, i.e., of what authority and power are you, to pass judgment on the servant of another? For a judge must have authority, as it says in Ex (2:14): "Who made you a prince and a judge over us?" "Man, who made me a judge or divider over you" (Lk 12:14). 1093. But from this reasoning it seems to follow that a man’s judgment about another man is illicit. The answer is that a man’s judgment is licit, as long as he acts with divinely granted authority. Hence, it says in Dt (1:16): "Hear them and judge what is righteous," and later he adds, "Judgment is God’s," i.e., passed with God’s authority. But if someone desires to usurp judgment over matters not divinely granted him to judge, the judgment is rash, just as if a judge delegated by the Pope wished to go beyond the limits of his mandate. But God has reserved to Himself the judging of hidden things, which are mainly the thoughts of the heart and the future. Therefore, if anyone presumed to judge about these matters, the judgment would be rash. Hence Augustine says in The Lord’s Sermon on the Mount: "A judgment is rash in these two cases, since there is uncertainty about the intention with which something was done, or uncertainty about the future of one who now seems to be good or evil." 538 1094. Then when he says: It is before his own master that he stands or falls, he presents the second reason, which is taken from the end of merit or demerit. For one could say that although a man has no authority to judge, he should involve himself in the judgment of another on account of the harm or benefit that comes from it. But the Apostle says here that this pertains to God rather than to man. And so even for this reason we should leave to God judgments about our neighbor, unless we are acting in His stead in judging by authority committed to us. In regard to this he does three things: first, he states his proposition; secondly, he gives an example [v. 5; n. 1097]; thirdly, he proves the proposition [v. 6; n. 1099]. 1095. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he proposes that whatever happens to man pertains to God when he says: Before his master he stands, i.e., by doing right: "Our feet have been standing within your gates, O Jerusalem" (Ps 122:2, or falls, i.e., by sinning: "Fallen, no more to rise is the virgin Israel" (Am 5:1). He presents it as a disjunctive, stands or falls, on account of the uncertainty, for many seem to fall who stand, and vice versa, as it says in Ec (8:10): "then I saw the wicked buried; they used to go in and out of the holy place and were praised in the city, where they had done such things." But the Apostle is speaking here in terms of a likeness to a human servant, to whose master pertains everything done in regard to him. Nor should we suppose that God is harmed or benefited, if a man stands or falls. For it says in Jb (35:6): "If you have sinned, what do you accomplish against him. If you are righteous, what do you give him." But in relation to men acts of righteousness look 539 to God’s glory: "That they may see your good works and give glory to your Father in heaven" (Mt 5:16). The fact that we fall by sinning is for men the occasion for blaspheming God: "The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles" (Rom 2:24). Or the words It is before his own master that he stands or falls should be explained as regarding the judgment of his Master: "The one who judges me is the Lord" (1Cor 4:4). 1096. Secondly, he shows that it pertains to God to judge a man, saying, And he will be upheld. As if to say: Even though someone now falls by sinning, it is possible that he will stand again. And this will certainly happen, if he has been predestined: "Will he not rise again from where he lies?" (Ps 41:8); "Rejoice not over me, O my enemy, when I fall, I shall rise (Mic 7:8). For this reason if we see someone obviously sinning, we should not despise him and rashly judge that he will never rise again; rather, we should presume that he will stand again, not considering the human condition but God’s power. Hence, when he says: For God is able to make him stand, we should presume that He will make him stand again on account of His goodness: "The Spirit entered into me and set me upon my feet" (Ez 3:24), just as Paul said earlier: "And even the others, if they do not persist in their unbelief, will be grafted in, for God has the power to graft them in again (11:23). 1097. Then when he says, one man esteems, he exemplifies what he had said. First, he proposes that human opinions vary, saying: I say that he stands or falls before his own master, because one man esteems one day as better than another, i.e., he judges between one day and another, so that he abstains on one day and not on another. This seems to refer to those weak in faith, who suppose that the practices of the Law must still 540 be observed. For it says in Lev (23:27): "on the tenth day of this seventh month is the day of atonement; and you shall afflict yourselves on this day." And in Jdt (8:6) it is stated that Judith fasted all the days of her life, except on Sabbaths, new moons and feasts of the house of Israel. Another man esteems all days alike as far as observing the practices of the Law were concerned, because these had now ceased. Hence this seems to refer to the perfect in faith: "Bless his name from day to day" (Ps 96:2). This can also refer to cases of abstaining performed to control sensual desires. Some abstain in this manner every day; for example, those who always abstain from meat or wine or fast, although some abstain on certain days and not on others: "For everything there is a season" (Ec 3:1). 1098. Secondly, he shows that all these things can pertain to the glory of God, saying: Let everyone be fully convinced in his own mind, i.e., be left to his own judgment: "God made man from the beginning and left him in the hands of his own counsel" (Sir 15:14). But this seems to apply to things that are not of themselves evil. In things that are of themselves evil, however, man must not be left to follow his own mind. But that a person discriminates between days seems to be evil of itself according to the first explanation. For it says in Gal (4:10): "You observe days and months and seasons and years! I fear that I have labored over you in vain." And he is speaking there about those who claimed that days must be observed according to the ceremonies of the Law. The answer is that the Apostle is speaking here in regard to that time in which it was lawful for Jews converted to the faith to observe the practices of the Law. But in 541 regard to the second explanation it seems to be illicit for him to say: "Another man esteems all days alike." For there are some days on which it is unlawful to fast. For Augustine says in a letter to Casulanus: "Whoever things that a fast should be decreed on the Lord’s day would not be a small scandal to the Church, and rightfully so. For on those days about which the Church or Sacred Scripture has decreed nothing definite, the customs of the people of God and the decrees of the major authorities must be considered the Law. And in the Decrees it is written: If on account of a public penance received from a priest a presbyter were to fast without any other need on the Lard’s day, let him be anathema." But one should understand that the Apostle is speaking here about those abstinences that can be licitly undertaken on any day without clashing with the common custom, or with the customs established by those in authority [a maioribus]. 1099. Then when he says, he who observes, he proves his proposition, namely, that each one stands or falls before his own master. And he does this in three ways. First, he proves it by appealing to the act of believers; secondly, by their intention [v. 7; n. 1101]; thirdly, by their condition [v. 8; n. 1103]. 1100. First, therefore, he proves how each of the faithful stands or falls before his mater, because in everything he does according to his conscience, he gives thanks to God. Hence he says: He who observes the day by abstaining one day and refraining from it on another day, observes it in honor of the Lord, i.e., he discriminates between foods out of reverence for God, just as we ourselves distinguish between the vigils of feasts when we 542 fast, and the feast days when we break the fast out of reverence for God: "Why is any day better than another and light better than light" (Sir 33:7). Then he speaks with respect to those who esteem all days alike,. Some of these ceased from fasting every day, as Mt (9:14) says that Christ’s disciples did not fast. Hence he says: He also who eats, namely, every day, eats in honor of the Lord, i.e., to the glory of God; which is proved by the fact that he gives thanks to God, namely, for the food he eats: "Some enjoin abstinence from foods which God created to be received with thanksgiving" (I Tim 4:3); "The poor shall eat and be filled" (Ps 22:26). Finally in regard to those who look on days in such a way that they abstain every day, he says: He who abstains every day abstains in honor of the Lord. This is clear, because he gives thanks to God, Who gave him the will and virtue to abstain: "Give thanks in all circumstances" (I Th 5:18). But what the Apostle says here about those who abstain every day or cease abstaining should be understood with respect to that time when this was not contrary to the decrees of major authorities or to the common customs of the people of God. 1101. Then when he says, None of us lives to himself, he proves the same thing from the intention of believers. First, he rejects an inordinate intention, saying: I am correct in saying that everyone stands or falls before his master, for none of us lives to himself in his natural or in his supernatural life, about which it says in Heb (2:4): "My just man lives by faith." To himself, i.e., for himself, because that would be to enjoy himself: "Not seeking what is useful for me" (I Cor 10:33); "Not to us, O Lord, not to us give the glory" (Ps 114:9); to himself, i.e., according to his own rule, as those who say: "Let our might be our law of 543 right" (Wis 2:11); to himself, i.e., according to his own judgment: "I do not even judge myself" (I Cor 4:3). And none of us dies to himself, namely, a bodily death or a spiritual death by sinning, or even a spiritual death where9in one dies to his vices, as in baptism, as it says above (6:7): "He who has died is freed from sin." For to himself, i.e., to his own judgment or for himself or by his example: "The death he died he died to sin once for all " (Rom 6:10); and a few verses later: "So you also must consider yourselves dead to sin. 1102. Secondly, he describes the right intention of believers, saying: If we live with our bodily life, we live to the Lord, i.e., to the glory of the Lord; and if we die a bodily death, we die to the Lord, i.e., to the honor of the Lord: "Christ will be magnified in my body whether through death or through life" (Phil 1:20). 1103. Then when he says, so then, he clarifies his proposition by considering the condition of believers. First he concludes from the foregoing the condition of the faithful, namely, that they are not their own but someone else’s. For those who are their own are free men; they live to themselves and die to themselves. Therefore, because it has been stated that the faithful do not live or die to themselves but to the Lord, he concludes: so then, whether live or whether we die, we are the Lord’s, servants, as it were, of Him Who has power over life and death: "You were bought with a price; do not become slaves of men" (I Cor 7:23); "You were bought with a great price" (I Cor 6:20); "We are yours, O David, and with you, O son of Jesse!" (I Chr 12:18). 544 1104. Secondly, he assigns the cause of this condition, saying: For to this end Christ died and lived again, i.e., by His death and resurrection He obtained the right to be Lord of the living, because He rose to begin a new and perpetual life, and of the dead, because by dying He destroyed our death: "He died for all that those who live might live no longer for themselves, but for him who for their sake died and arose (2 Cor 5:15). Thus, therefore, by all the foregoing the Apostle has proved that each one stands or falls before his master, namely, by the fact that believers give thanks to God and that they live and die to the Lord and that in life and in death we are the Lord’s. 1105. Then when he says, Why do you, he presents the third reason, which is based on the future judgment. In regard to this he does three things: first, he suggests that a judgment at present is unnecessary, saying: Why do you pass judgment, i.e., of what use or need is your judgment, on your brother, rashly judging hidden matters not committed to your judgment? Or you, who are judged, why do you despise your brother, regarding as nothing the fact that you are judged by him? "Why does each one despise his brother?" (Mic 2:10). 1106. Secondly, he foretells the future judgment of Christ: As if to say: I am correct in stating why you pass judgment, because you should not fear that anyone will remain unjudged. For we shall all stand before the tribunal of Christ. The tribunal of Christ is so called on account of His judiciary power, as it says in Mt (25:20): "When the Son of man comes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he will sit on the glorious throne." 545 He says that we shall all stand, as if to be judged, both good and evil in regard to reward or punishment: "We must all appear before the judgment sat of Christ, so that each one may receive good or evil according to what he has done in the body" (2 Cor 5:10). But as to the proceedings not all will stand to be judged, but some will sit as judges: "You will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel" (Mt 19:28). 1107. Thirdly, when he says, for it is written, he proves what he had said: first, he appeals to an authority; secondly, he draws the conclusion [v. 12; n. 1112]. 1108. First, therefore, he says: I have stated that all of us will stand before the tribunal of Christ. This is clear from the testimony of Sacred Scripture: for it is written (Is 45:23): As I live, says the Lord, every knee shall bow to me, and every tongue shall give praise to God. Our text has this: "I have sword by myself that to me every knee shall bow and every tongue shall swear." 1109. Three things are stated in these words: first, the oath sometimes used by God to show that what is said is as solid as the unchangeableness of God’s plan and not changeable as things foretold according to lower causes, as prophecies that threaten. Hence it says in Ps 110 (v. 4): "The Lord has sworn and will not change his mind." But men, as the Apostle says in Heb (6:16), "swear by a greater than themselves." But because God has none greater than Himself on which the strength of His truth depends, He swears by Himself. 546 Furthermore, God is life itself and the source of life, as it says in Dt (30:20): "He is your life and the length of your days"; "With thee is the fountain of life" (Ps 36:9). Therefore, the formula of the Lord’s oath is, as I live. As if to say: I swear by the life I uniquely live. 1110. Secondly, the coming subjection of the creature to God is foretold, when it is said: every knee shall bow to me, i.e., to Christ. In this is designated the complete subjection of the rational creature to Christ. For men are wont to signify subjection by bending the knee. Hence it says in Phil (2:11): "At the name of Jesus every knee should bend in heaven and on the earth and under the earth. 1111. Thirdly, he foretells the confession of faith by which all will confess the glory of Christ. Hence he continues: and every tongue shall give praise to God, i.e., will confess that Christ is God, as it says in Phil (2:11): "Every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father." Every tongue can be understood as the expression of the knowledge of men or of angels, as it says in I Cor (13:1): "If I speak in the tongue of men and of angels." This is fulfilled now in this life, not as to each man but as to the classes of each man. From each class of men some are not subjected to Christ and confess Him by faith, but in the future judgment all and each will be subjected to Him: the good voluntarily and the evil unwillingly. Hence, it says in Heb (2:8): "Now in subjecting everything to him, he left nothing outside his control." 1112. Then when he says, so each of us, he draws the conclusion from the foregoing. 547 First, the conclusion intended from what he had just said, saying: Therefore, from the fact that every knee will bend before Christ, each of us shall give an account of himself before God, i.e., before the tribunal of Christ: "On the day of judgment every man shall render an account for every careless word he uttered" (Mt 12:36); "The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a king who wished to settle accounts with his servants" (Mt 18:23). 1113. But it seems that not everyone will give an account of himself, but one for someone else: "Obey your leaders and submit to them. For they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give an account" (Heb 13:17). The answer is that in the very fact that prelates will render an account for others, they will render an account for their own actions, which they6 should have performed for their subjects. For if they have done what their duties demanded, they will not be held accountable, if their subjects perished. But they would be held accountable, if they neglected to do what their office required. Hence it says in Ez (3:18ff): "If I say to the wicked, ‘You shall surely die,’ and you give him no warning, nor speak to warn the wicked from his wicked way, in order to save his life, that wicked man shall die in his iniquity, but his blood I shall require at your hand. But if you warn the wicked and he does not turn from his wickedness, he shall die in his iniquity, but you will have saved your life." 1114. Secondly, he draws the conclusion chiefly intended from the entire preceding part, saying: Then let us no more pass judgment on one another, i.e., with a rash judgment, which is included in the reason given above: "Do not pronounce judgment before the time" (I Cor 4:5).

1115. After forbidding human judgments [n. 1081], the Apostle now forbids putting stumbling blocks before one’s neighbor. First, he presents his proposition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 15; n. 1122]. 1116. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he teaches that stumbling blocks must be avoided, saying: I have said that you should not judge one another, but everyone ought to judge his own actions. And this is what he says: but rather decide never to put a hindrance or scandal in the way of a brother. A scandal, as Jerome says in 549 his commentary on Matthew, means a hindrance or injury which we can call a "striking of the foot." Hence a scandal is an illegal word or deed presenting the occasion of ruin to someone after the manner of a stone against which one strikes his foot and falls. A scandal is more serious than a hindrance, for the latter can be anything which merely retards forward movement; but a scandal, i.e., a striking, seems to exist when someone is disposed for a fall. Therefore, we should not place a hindrance before our brother by doing anything that will draw him from the path of righteousness: "Take the hindrance out of my people’s path" (Is 57:14). Nor should we place a scandal before a brother by doing something that might incline him to sin: "Woe to the man by whom scandal comes" (Mt 18:7). 1117. Secondly, he teaches that what was considered a stumbling block was of its very nature and in itself lawful. In regard to this it should be noted that, as was stated above, there were among the Romans some Jews converted to Christ who distinguished among foods without distinction - this of itself was lawful. Hence he says: I know and am persuaded in the Lord Jesus that nothing is unclean in itself. On this point it should be known, as Jerome says in his commentary on Matthew, that the Jewish people, boasting that they are God’s portion, call unclean the food which all men use, e.g., the flesh of swine, hares and food of that sort. Furthermore, the nations which used such foods were not God’s portion; consequently, such food was unclean. The words nothing is common amount to the same thing as saying "Nothing is unclean." 550 The Apostle says that nothing is unclean, because he knows that it is so according to the nature of things, as he says in I Tim (4:4): Everything created by God is good and nothing is to be rejected, if it is received with thanksgiving." Secondly, he says that he is persuaded in Christ Jesus that in itself nothing is unclean, namely, because foods of their very nature never were unclean, but they were avoided for a time as unclean in keeping with a commandment of the Law as a figure. But Christ removed this by fulfilling all figures. Therefore, the Apostle, relying on his confidence in the Lord Jesus, asserts that nothing is common or unclean of itself: "What God has cleansed, you must not call common" (Ac 10:15). 1118. Thirdly, he shows how this could be unlawful accidentally, inasmuch as it is against the conscience of the eater. Hence he says: It has been stated that nothing is unclean; but it must be understood that if one has an erroneous conscience and thinks that some food is unclean, then for him it is unclean and so it is unlawful for him, as if the food were really unclean: "To the pure all things are pure, but to the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their minds and consciences are corrupted" (*** 1:15). 1119. So it is clear that something licit in itself becomes illicit for one who does it against his conscience, even though his conscience is erroneous. It is reasonable that this be so, for acts are judged according to the will of the performer. But the will is moved by the thing apprehended. Hence the will tends toward what the apprehensive power represents to it, and it is according to this that the action is qualified or specified. Therefore, if a person’s reason judges that something is sinful and the will is drawn to it as something to be done, it is clear that the person has a will to commit a sin. For this reason his external action, which is informed from the will, is a sin. For the same reason, 551 if one thinks that something venially sinful is a mortal sin, if he does it while his conscience is in that state, it is clear that he has chosen to sin mortally; consequently, his action is a mortal sin on account of his choice. But if someone afterwards has an erroneous conscience through which he believes that something lawful he did was a sin, or something venial was mortal, it is not on that account a sin or mortal, because the will and the action are not informed by a succeeding apprehension but by the one preceding the will and the action. 1120. There is no doubt about what we have said, but there can be doubt whether if someone has an erroneous conscience whereby he believes that something which is a mortal sin is necessary for salvation; for example, if he thinks that he is sinning mortally, unless he steals or fornicates, should such a conscience bind him, so that if he acted against it, he would sin mortally. It would seem that he would not be bound. First, because God’s law, which forbids stealing and fornication, bind him more strongly than conscience. Secondly, because this position would put him in a perplexed state, for he would sin by fornicating and by not fornicating. The answer is that an erroneous conscience binds, even in matters per se evil. For conscience, as has been said, binds to such an extent that from the fact that one acts against his conscience, it follows that he has the will to sin. Therefore, if someone believes that not to fornicate is a sin and chooses not to fornicate, he chooses to sin mortally; and so he sins mortally. This also applies to what the Apostle says here. For it is clear that distinguishing among foods as though necessary for salvation was unlawful, because even before the spreading of the Gospel, it was not lawful for the converted Jews 552 to observe the practices of the Law by putting their hope in them, as though they were necessary for salvation, as Augustine said above [n. 1087]. Yet the Apostle says here that if a person’s conscience compels him to distinguish between foods, i.e., regards some food as unclean, and he does not distinguish among them, i.e., by abstaining from them, he sins as though he were eating unclean food. And so an erroneous conscience obliges, even in matters that are per se illicit. The answer to the first objection about the law of God is that the binding force of even an erroneous conscience and that of the law of God are the same. For conscience does not dictate something to be done or avoided, unless it believes that it is against or in accordance with the law of God. For the law is applied to our actions only by means of our conscience. The answer to the second objection is that nothing forbids a person to be perplexed in certain circumstances, although no one is perplexed absolutely. For example, a fornicating priest sins mortally whether he celebrates Mass or does not celebrate, when is obliged by his office. Yet absolutely speaking, he is not perplexed, because he can confess and then celebrate. Similarly, someone can get rid of an erroneous conscience and abstain from sin. 1121. There is still another difficulty. For one is not said to place a stumbling block by doing a good work, even though someone takes the good work as a stumbling block, as Mt (15:12) says that the Pharisees took the words of Jesus as a stumbling block. But not to discriminate among foods is a good work; therefore, it should not be avoided just because someone with a erroneous conscience makes a stumbling block of it. For according to this, Catholics would have to 553 abstain from meat and marriage to prevent heretics from being offended according to their erroneous conscience. The answer is that someone can place a stumbling block before another not only by doing something evil but also by doing something which has the appearance of evil: "Abstain from all appearances of evil" (I Th 5:22). Now something is said to have the appearance of evil in two ways: first, according to the opinion of those cut off from the Church; secondly, according to the opinion of those still tolerated by the Church. But those weak in faith, considering that the practices of the Law should be observed, were still tolerated by the Church before the spread of the Gospel. Therefore, foods forbidden by the Law were not to be eaten, if they were a stumbling block. Heretics, however, are not tolerated by the Church; therefore, this reasoning does not apply to them. 1122. Then when he says, if your brother, he clarifies what he had said: first, that scandals must not be placed before a brother; secondly, how something is common [v. 20b; n. 1132]. 1123. In regard to the first he presents four arguments, the first of which is taken on the part of charity, saying: If y our brother is being injured by the fact that he thinks you are sinning by the food you eat, which he considers unclean, you are no longer walking in love, according to which a person loves his neighbor as himself. So you should avoid saddening him and not prefer food to your brother’s peace of mind: "Love does not seek its own" (I Cor 13:5). 1124. Then when he says, Do not let your food, he presents the second argument taken on the part of Christ’s death. 554 For he seems to put little value on Christ’s death who voids its fruit for the sake of food. Hence he says: Do not let your food, of which you eat all without distinction, cause the ruin of one, i.e., be a stumbling block for whom, i.e., for whose salvation, Christ died: "Christ died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust" (I Pt 3:18). He says that the victim of the stumbling block suffers ruin, because it involves him in sin. For the victim is one who makes a stumbling block the occasion of ruin: "So by your knowledge this weak man is destroyed, the brother for whom Christ died" (I Cor 8:11). 1125. Then when he says, So do not let, he presents the third reason, which is taken on the part of the gifts of spiritual grace. First, he shows what impropriety follows against such gifts from the fact that we place a stumbling block; secondly, he clarifies what he had said [v. 17; n. 1127]; thirdly, he draws a conclusion [v. 19; n. 1130]. 1126. In regard to the first it should be noted that because some ate all foods without distinction in the early Church and thus set an obstacle before the weak, this impropriety followed, namely, that the weak blasphemed the faith of Christ, asserting that it fostered greediness in regard to food, contrary to the commandment of the Law. Therefore, the Apostle says: Although the Lord Jesus declared that nothing is unclean, we should not let our good, i.e., the faith and grace of Christ, though which you have obtained freedom from the ceremonies of the Law, be blasphemed by the weak who declare that it caters to man’s gluttony: "They blaspheme that honorable name by which 555 you are called" (Jas 2:7); concerning this good it says in Ps 73 (v. 6): "For me it is good to be near God." 1127. Then when he says, For the kingdom, he explains what he had said, namely, in what our good consists. First, he shows in what it does not consist, saying: The kingdom of God is not food and drink. Here the kingdom of God means that through which God reigns in us and through which we arrive at His kingdom. Mt (6:10) says of this: "Thy kingdom come" and Mic (4:7): "The Lord will reign over them in Mount Zion." We are joined to God and subjected to Him through our intellect and affections, as it says in Jn (4:24): "God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth." This is why the kingdom of God is considered mainly in things interior to man and not exterior. Hence Lk (17:21) says: "The kingdom of God is within you. But things which are exterior and pertain to the body pertain to the kingdom of God to the extent that through them the interior affections are ordered or disordered in regard to those things in which the kingdom of God mainly consists. Hence, since food and drink pertain to the body, they do not of themselves pertain to the kingdom of God, but only inasmuch as we use them or abstain from them. Hence it says in I Cor (8:8): "Food will not commend us to God. We are no worse off if we do not eat, and no better off if we do." Yet the use of or abstinence from food and drink pertains to the kingdom of God, insofar as a man’s affections are ordered or disordered in regard to them. Hence Augustine says in Gospel Questions [book 2, question 11], and is provided here in the Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1517]: "Wisdom is justified in her children who understand that 556 righteousness does not consist in eating or in abstaining, but in tolerating need with equanimity and in temperance not destroying itself by abundance and by unsuitable ways of eating. It makes no difference," as is said in the Gloss "how, what, or how much one takes, provided he does it according to the habits of the men among whom he lives and for the needs of his person and health; but with how much power and severity of mind he suffers the lack of these, either when he should or of necessity must be deprived of them. 1128. Secondly, he shows in what our good consists, namely, in the kingdom of God, saying: Righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Here righteousness refers to external works, whereby a man renders to each person what is his due and the intention of doing such works, as it says in Mt (6:33): "Seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness." Peace refers to the effect of justice [righteousness]. For peace is particularly disturbed, when one man does not give to another what he owes him. Hence it says in Is (32:17): "Peace is a work of justice." Joy must be referred to the manner in which the works of justice are to be accomplished; for as the Philosopher says in book one of the Ethics, "A man is not just who does not take joy in acts of justice." Hence Ps 100 (v. 2) says: "Serve the Lord with gladness." The cause of this joy is expressed when says: in the Holy Spirit. For it is by the Holy Spirit that the love of God is poured into us, as was said above (5:5). For joy in the Holy Spirit is what charity produces; for example, when one rejoices in the good of God and neighbor. Hence it says in I Cor (13:6): "Charity does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right" and in Gal (5:22): "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace. The three things mentioned here are possessed imperfectly in this life, but perfectly when the saints will possess the kingdom God prepared for them, as it says in 557 Mt (25:34). In that kingdom perfect righteousness will exist without any sin: "All your people are righteous" (Is 60:21). There will be perfect peace without any disquiet or fear: "My people will abide in a peaceful habitation" (Is 32:18). There will be joy there: "They shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away" (Is 35:1). 1129. Then he proves what he had said, namely, that the kingdom of God consists in these things. For the man who seems to belong to the kingdom of God is one who is pleasing to God and approved by holy men. But this happens to the man in whom are found righteousness, peace and joy. Therefore, the kingdom of God consists in them. He says, therefore: It has been stated that the kingdom of God is righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit; therefore, he who thus serves Christ, Who is the king of this kingdom: "He has transferred us into the kingdom of his beloved Son (Col 1:13), so that one who lives in righteousness, joy and peace is pleasing to God, Who is the founder of this kingdom: "There was one who pleased God and was loved by him" (Wis 4:10) and approved by men, i.e., approved by the members of this kingdom: "Who has been tested by it and found perfect" (Sir 31:10). 1130. Then when he says, Let us then, he infers the intended admonition. Inasmuch as the kingdom of God consists in righteousness, peace and spiritual joy, let us then, in order to arrive at the kingdom of God, pursue the path of peace, i.e., strive to accomplish the things through which we conserve the peace of Christians: "Strive for peace and holiness" (Heb 12:14). Let us then pursue what makes for peace and for mutual upbuilding, i.e., things by which we upbuild one another, i.e., by which we preserve what is good and are stimulated to become better: "Strive to excel in building up the Church" (I Cor 14:12). 558 1131. Then when he says, Do not for the sake of food, he presents the fourth argument, which is taken from our reverence for God’s works, to which we owe this reverence in the sense that what God does we should not destroy for some bodily convenience: And this is what he says: Do not for the sake of food, which is used by the body, destroy the work of God. This, of course, does not mean just any work of God. For all the things which serve as man’s food are God’s works, as the produce of the earth and the flesh of animals, which have been granted to man for food, as it says in Gen (1:29; 9:3). It means the work of grace which He works in us in a special way: "God is at work in your, both to will and to work for his good pleasure" (Phil 2:13). Therefore, we should not for the sake of food destroy this work of God in our neighbor, as they seemed to do who disturbed and placed stumbling blocks before the brethren by eating all foods without distinction.

1132. After presenting a reason to show that we should not set a stumbling block before our neighbor by eating all foods indiscriminately [n. 1122], the Apostle now shows how certain foods can be clean and unclean. In regard to this he does two things. First, he states which things are clean of their very nature, saying: Everything, indeed, which can pertain to man’s food is clean, namely, of its very nature, because of its very nature it does not have the power to defile a man’s soul, as it says in Mt (15:11): "Not what goes into the mouth defiles a man"; and in I Tim (4:4): "Everything created by God is good." But certain things were declared unclean under the Law not of their nature but by reason of what they signified, as is clear in Lev (11:2ff). But Christ even removed this uncleanness by fulfilling the figures of the Old Law. Hence it was said to Peter: "What God has cleansed, you must not call common," i.e., unclean (Ac 10:15). Secondly [n. 1133], when he says, but it is wrong, he shows how some food can become unclean for a man, namely, it stains his soul to eat it; and this in two ways: first, when a person by eating all food indiscriminately puts a stumbling block before his neighbor; secondly, when he eats food contrary to his conscience [v. 22b; n. 1138]. 1133. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he shows what is evil in taking food, saying: Although all things are by their nature good, nevertheless, it is wrong for anyone to make others fall by what he eats: "Woe to the world for stumbling blocks" (Mt 18:7). Secondly, he shows what is good in eating foods of this sort, saying: It is good not to eat meat or drink wine, the first of which seems to be the principal food and the second the principal drink. 560 He says that it is good to abstain from these either to tame the desires of the flesh, as it says in Eph (5:18): "Do not get drunk with wine, for in that is debauchery," or even to make a man more apt for contemplating spiritual things: "I have thought to deprive myself of wine, that I might give my mind to wisdom" (Ec 2:3). But this is not what the Apostle intends to say here, but that it is good not to use these, if they are a stumbling block to the brethren. This is apparent from what he says: or do anything that makes your brother stumble. What I say, I say not only about wine and meat, namely, that it is good not to use them, but I say it of any other food; your brother is upset, i.e., disturbed about you, as if you were acting unlawfully. By this his peace is disturbed or he sees a stumbling block, i.e., is tempted to fall into sin; wherefore, his righteousness is injured or is weakened, i.e., begins at least to wonder whether what is done is lawful, so that his spiritual joy is lessened. 1135. But since it is lawful to use these foods, if one must abstain from using them for fear of putting a stumbling block before his neighbor, then by the same token it seems that one should abstain from all lawful things which are not necessary for salvation, as righteousness, peace and spiritual joy are necessary. So it seems that it is not lawful for a man to demand his due for fear of putting a stumbling block before his neighbor. The answer is that if the stumbling block [scandal] proceeds from the weakness or ignorance of those scandalized on account of it, then to avoid this scandal a man should abstain from lawful things, if they are not necessary for salvation. For this is scandal of little ones, which the Lord commands us to avoid: "See that you do not despise one of these little ones" (Mt 18:10). But if scandal of this sort arises from the malice of those 561 scandalized, such scandal is Pharisaical and the Lord taught that it should be ignored. Hence, to avoid scandal of this sort, it is not necessary to abstain from lawful things. But yet in regard to scandal of little ones, it should be noted that to avoid it, a person is bound to postpone the use of lawful things, until this scandal can be removed by explaining one’s conduct. But if the scandal still remains after such an explanation, then it would seem to proceed not from ignorance or from weakness but from malice, so that it will now be Pharisaical scandal. 1136. Thirdly, he rejects an excuse. For someone might say: Although my neighbor may be scandalized at my eating all foods indiscriminately, yet to profess my faith, which tells me that it is lawful, I will use food indiscriminately. But the Apostle rejects this reasoning, saying: You, who would use all foods indiscriminately, have the faith, through which it is clear that it is lawful to use these foods. This faith is good and praiseworthy, but keep it between you and God, Whom such faith pleases: "God is well pleased with faith and meekness" (Sir 18:14). As if to say: It is not fitting to manifest your faith by an outward work, when this becomes a stumbling block to your neighbor. 1137. But this seems to be contradicted by something he said above (10:10): "Man believes with his heart and so is justified; and he confesses with his lips and so is saved." Therefore, it does not seem to be enough to keep the faith in your heart between yourself and God, but it should be manifested by confessing it before one’s neighbor. The answer is that among the matters of faith some have not been perfectly manifested by the Church, as in the early Church it had not been perfectly declared to men that Jewish converts were not bound to observe the practices of the Law, and as in 562 37 Cf. Augustine, De libero Arbitrio, book 3, ch. 21. the time of Augustine the Church had not yet declared that the soul was not transferred from the parent.37 Hence, in cases of this kind it is enough for a man to keep his faith between himself and God. Nor should he manifest his faith, if it scandalizes his neighbor, except perhaps among those who have to decide about the faith. But certain things of faith have already been determined by the Church. In such matters it is not enough to keep your faith between yourself and God, but one should confess it before his neighbor, no matter what scandal might arise, because doctrinal truth must not be set aside on account of scandal, just as Christ did not set aside the truth of His teaching just because the Pharisees were scandalized, as it says in Mt (15:12ff). It should also be noted that although in such matters a person should manifest his faith by oral confession, he is not required to manifest it by performing the outward work. Thus, if someone hold by faith that the use of marriage is licit, he is not required as a manifestation of his faith to use. It. And so it is also not required of those who have correct faith, that they manifest their faith by the use of foods. For they could manifest it by word. 1138. Then when he says, happy is he, he shows how the use of foods becomes unclean for certain persons from the fact that it is against their conscience. In regard to this he does three things [nn. 1139, 1140]: first, he shows what is good in this matter, in order, namely, that a person not have remorse of conscience from something he does not do. Hence, he says: Happy is he who has no reason to judge himself, i.e., whose conscience neither chides nor condemns him for what he approves to be done. 563 This, of course, supposes that he approves with right faith that which is to be done. But if he uses a false opinion in approving something to be done, say if he deems it a service to God to kill Christ’s disciples, as it says in Jn (16:2), he is not excused just because he does not judge himself in this matter. Indeed, he would be happier if his conscience were to rebuke him on this point, because he would thereby have been restrained more from sin. But we should understand that the Apostle is speaking here of lawful things. For it pertains to man’s glory that his conscience not rebuke him: "Our glory is this, the testimony of our conscience" (I Cor 1:12); "My heart does not reproach me for any of my days" (Jb 27:6). 1139. Secondly, he shows what is evil in this matter, namely, that one acts against his conscience. Hence he says: But he who has doubts, i.e., has the false opinion that he must discriminate among foods, if he eats, namely, food which he regards as unlawful, is condemned, because so far as in him lies, he has the will to do what is unlawful; and so, "because he sinned, he is self-condemned" (*** 3:110. 1140. Thirdly, he assigns the cause of what he had said, saying: because he does not act from faith; therefore, he is condemned. Here faith can be taken in two ways: in one way of faith as a virtue; in another way, so that conscience is called faith. These two meanings differ only as particular and universal. For what we hold by faith universally, for example, that the use of foods is lawful or unlawful, conscience applies to a deed performed or to be performed. It is said, therefore, that he who eats and distinguishes is condemned, because this is not from faith but against faith, i.e., against a truth of faith and against the conscience of the eater: "Without faith it is impossible to please God" (Heb 11:6). That this is a 564 sufficient reason for condemnation is shown when he says: Whatever does not proceed from faith is sin. From this it seems that, as a Gloss says, "The entire life of unbelievers is sin," just as the entire life of believers is meritorious, inasmuch as it is directed to the glory of God, as it says in I Cor (10:31): "Whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God." 1141. But it should be noted that the believer’s relation to good differs from the unbeliever’s relation to evil. For there is nothing of condemnation in a person who has living faith, as was said above (8:1). But in the unbeliever along with his unbelief is the good of his nature. Therefore, when an unbeliever does something good from the dictate of reason and does not refer it to an evil end, he does not sin. However, his deed is not meritorious, because it was not enlivened by grace. This is what a Gloss says: "Nothing is good without the supreme good, i.e., no good is meritorious without God’s grace, and where knowledge of eternal life and unchangeable truth is lacking, which knowledge comes by faith, virtue in the best behavior is false, inasmuch as it is not referred to the end of eternal happiness. But when an unbeliever does something from the fact that he is an unbeliever, it is clear that he sins." Hence when a Gloss says: "Every deed which is not from faith is a sin," it must be understood in the following way: Everything against faith or against conscience is a sin, and if it is seems of its nature to be good, as when a pagan in honor of his gods preserves virginity or gives an alms, he sins by this very fact: "To the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their very minds and consciences are corrupted" (*** 1:15).

1142. The Apostle taught above that the stronger should avoid scandalizing the weak [n. 1081]; here he teaches that the stronger should bear with the failings of the weak. In regard to this he does two things: first, he proposes an admonition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 2; 1143]. This admonition contains two parts: the first pertains to external behavior. Hence he says: Not only should we avoid scandalizing the weak, but we who are stronger in faith ought to bear with the failings of the weak. For as in a material edifice certain stronger material is selected to support the edifice’s entire weight, upon which weaker material is set, as are the foundation and pillars, so in the spiritual edifice of the Church stronger men are not only chosen but made stronger to support the weight of the others. Hence it says in Ps 75 (v. 4): "I have strengthened its pillars" and in Gal (6:2): "Bear one another’s burdens." But the stronger support the failings of the weak, when they endure the shortcomings of the weak patiently and, so far as they can, try to help them. The second pertains to the internal intention. Hence it is said: And we should not please ourselves, i.e., always desire the fulfillment of what pleases us, but we should 567 condescend to the wills of others, so as to do what pleases them and is useful to them: "Just as I try to please all men in everything I do" (I Cor 10:33). 1143. Then when he says, let each of us, he clarifies his admonition: first, in regard to the second part; secondly, in regard to the first [v. 7; 1150]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he explains what he had said; secondly, he presents a reason [v. 3; 1145]. 1144. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that we should not please ourselves, precisely because each of us who are stronger, ought to please our weak neighbor, i.e., condescend to him in matters that please him, but not in matters that are evil, as some request in Is (30:10): "Speak to us smooth things." Hence he adds: for his good. Similarly, we should not have the intention of pleasing men for the sake of human favor or glory, since it says in Ps 53 (v. 5): "god will scatter the bones of those who please men," but for the honor of God and the benefit of our neighbor. Hence he adds: to edify him, i.e., because we condescend to their will, they are strengthened in the faith and love of Christ: "Let us pursue what makes for peace and mutual upbuilding" (Rom 14:19). 1145. Then when he says, For Christ, he assigns the reason for what he had said and uses the example of Christ: first, he mentions the example of Christ: secondly, he shows that we should imitate this example [v. 4; 1148]; 568 thirdly, he adds a prayer so that we can fulfill it [v. 5; n. 1149]. 1146. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents the example, saying: It has been stated that we should not please ourselves, i.e., according to our own private will; for Christ, Who is our head, did not please himself, when he chose to suffer for our salvation and do things contrary to His own will, namely, His natural human will, in order to accomplish the divine will, which was common to Him and the Father: "Not my will but thine be done" (Mt 26:42). 1147. Secondly, he appeals to an authority, saying: But as it is written in a Psalm in the person of Christ speaking to the Father: O Father, the reproaches of those, i.e., the Jews, who reproached thee, i.e., blasphemed you by their evil works and by contradicting the truth of your doctrine, has fallen on me, because they willed to oppress me, because I instructed them about your will and rebuked their evil deeds: "They have hated both me and my Father" (Jn 15:24). This can also refer to the sins of the whole human race, because all sins in a way reproach God, inasmuch as God’s aw is scorned by them: "Thy have forsaken the Lord, they have blasphemed the hold One of Israel" (Is 14:4). Thus, therefore, the reproaches of those reproaching God fell on Christ, inasmuch as He died for the sins of all: "The Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all" (Is. 1:4); "He bore our sins in his body on the tree" (I Pt 2:24). 1148. Then when he says, For whatever was written, he shows that we must imitate this example of Christ, saying: For whatever was written in Sacred Scripture about Christ or His members was written for our instruction. There was no need to write 569 this except for our instruction: "All scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for correction and for training in righteousness" (2 Tim 3:16). But what is contained in Scripture for our instruction is show when he says: that by patience and the consolation of the scriptures, i.e., which the Scriptures contain. For in Sacred Scripture is contained the patience of the saints in enduring evils: "You have heard of the patience of Job" (Jas 5:11). In them is also contained consolation, which God gave them, as it says in Ps 94 (v. 19): "When the cares of my heart are many, thy consolations cheer my soul." Hence it also says in I Pet (1:11): "predicting the sufferings of Christ," which pertains to patience, "and the subsequent glory," which pertains to consolation. What the fruit of this doctrine will be for us he indicates when he says: that we might have hope. For by the instruction from Sacred Scripture that those who suffered tribulations patiently for God were divinely consoled, we receive the hope that we ourselves will be consoled, if we have been patient in them: "If he should slay me, I will hope in him" (Jb 13:15). 1149. Then when he says, May the God of patience, because it seemed exceedingly difficult for a mere man to be able to imitate the example of Christ, as it says in Ec (2:12): "What is man that he should be able to follow the king, his maker?" he makes use of a prayer, saying: May the God of patience, i.e., the giver, Ps 71 (v. 5): "You are my patience," and of encouragement, i.e., who bestows spiritual consolation: 2 Cor (1:3): "The Father of mercies and God of all comfort, grant you to live in such harmony with one another, i.e., that you agree with one another: "Agree with one another, live in peace" (2 Cor 13:11), not consenting in sin, but in accord with Christ 570 Jesus, of Whom it is said: "He is our peace, who has made us both one" (Eph 2:14). That, by the fact that you agree on the same things, together you may with one voice, i.e., with one confession of the voice coming from unity of faith, I Cor (1:10): "I appeal that all of you agree," glorify the God, Creator of all things, and Father of Jesus Christ, through Whom He adopted us as His sons: "Those who honor me I will honor" (I Sam 2:30); "If I am a father, where is my honor?" (Mal 1:6). 1150. Then when he says, Therefore, welcome one another, he clarifies the first part of the admonition in which he had said that the stronger should bear with the failings of the weak. In regard to this he does two things: first, he resumes the admonition; secondly, he presents a reason from the example of Christ [v. 7b; n. 1152]; thirdly, he adds a reason [v. 13; n. 1162]. 1151. First, therefore, he says: Therefore, i.e., because the things that have been written are directed to our instruction, namely, the examples of Christ and the other saints, welcome one another in the love of charity, namely, so that one bears things that pertain to another, just as he would like to be helped as far as charity permits, and so that one may bear with another to help and enable him to advance: "Welcome the man who is weak in faith" (Rom 14:1). 1152. Then when he says, as Christ, he assigns a reason from the example of Christ. First, he presents the example, saying: as Christ welcomed you, i.e., took you under His care and protection: "Behold, my servant whom I uphold" (Is 42:1); "He has 571 helped Israel, his servant, in remembrance of his mercy" (Lk 1:54). And this for the glory of God, to Whom he referred all things: "I honor my Father and you dishonor me" (Jn 8:49). From this we are given to understand that we should bear up on another in things pertaining to the honor of God. 1153. Secondly, when he says, For I tell, he clarifies what he had said: first, with respect to the Jews; secondly with respect to the Gentiles [v. 9; n. 1155]. 1154. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that Christ welcomed you who are assembled in the unity of faith composed of Jews and Gentiles. And this is clear with respect to both: I tell you, therefore, that Christ became a servant to the circumcised, for He is the author of everyone’s faith, as it says in Heb (12:2): "Looking to Jesus, the author and perfector of our faith." But He showed Himself in person only to the Jews, as it says in Mt (15:24): "I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel"; and in Is (42:2): "His voice will not be heard outside." And this to show God’s truthfulness, i.e., that the truth of God’s promise may be acknowledged: "God is truthful" (Rom 3:4). Hence he continues: in order to confirm the promises given to the patriarchs: "He has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his servant David; as he spoke from the mouth of his holy prophets" (Lk 1:69); "For all the promises of God find their Yes in him" (2 Cor 1:20). 1155. Then when he says, and in order that, he shows that even the Gentiles were accepted by Christ: first, he states his proposition; 572 secondly, he confirms it with an authority [v. 9b; 1158]. 1156. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that Christ accepted the Jews in order that the promises made to the patriarchs be fulfilled. But the promises were not made to the Gentiles. Hence, this does not apply to the Gentiles, because they were accepted on account of mercy. And this is what he says: that the Gentiles should glorify God for the mercy extended to them by Christ; because, although He did not preach to them in person, He sent them His disciples, who exercised their ministry among them as He had done among the Jews: "Go, therefore, and teach all nations" (Mt 28:19); "The earth is full of the Lord’s mercy" (Ps 33:5); "His mercy is on those who fear him from generation to generation" (Lk 1:50). 1157. Thus, the Apostle attributes the conversion of the Jews to God’s truth but that of the Gentiles to His mercy. But Ps 25 (v. 10) says: "All the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth," which seems to contradict this. The answer is that in ascribing the call of the Jews to God’s truth He does not exclude mercy, because the Apostle himself, who was born of the Jews, says: "I received mercy" (I Tim 1:13). It was also an act of mercy that God made the promises to the patriarchs about the salvation of their descendants. Similarly, in ascribing the call of the Gentiles to God’s mercy He does not exclude God’s truth entirely, because it also pertained to divine truth that He should fulfill His intention concerning the salvation of the Gentiles. Of this intention the Apostle says in Eph (3:9): "It was a mystery hidden for ages in God." But one form of truth, namely, the fulfillment of promises, is considered in the call of the Jews, that is not considered in the call of the Gentiles, to whom the promises were not made. 573 1158. Then when he says, As it is written, he confirms with an authority what he had said about he conversion of the Gentiles. For although the call had not been promised to the Gentiles, it was not unplanned but was foretold by the predictions of the prophets. He adduces four authorities, the first of which contains Christ’s thanksgiving to the "Father for the conversion of the Gentiles achieved by Him. Hence he says: As it is written, (Ps 18), Thou didst make me the head of the gentiles (v. 43); thou didst exalt me above my adversaries (v. 48). O, God the Father, I, Christ, will praise you with thanksgiving among the Gentiles, for the conversion of the Gentiles accomplished through me and I will sing with new exaltation of mind to your name, which has been manifested to them, as it says in Jn (17:6): "I have manifested they name to the men whom thou gavest me." Or in another way: I will praise you among the Gentiles, i.e., I will make the Gentiles confess to you with a confession of faith: "Let the peoples praise thee, O God, let all the peoples praise thee" (Ps 67:5) and I will sing to your name, i.e., I will make the Gentiles sing to you a song which consists in the exultation of a renewed spirit: "O, sing to the Lord a new song; sing to the Lord, all the earth" (Ps 96:1). 1159. The second authority contains the coalescence of Gentiles and Jews. Hence, he says: And again it is said: "O Gentiles, once alienated from the commonwealth of Israel" (Eph 2:12); Rejoice, O Gentiles, with his people, i.e., adopt a common joy together with the Jews, who were once His people: "They rejoice before thee as with joy at the harvest" (Is 9:3); "There shall be one flock and one shepherd" (Jn 10:16). 574 1160. The third authority contains the devotion of the Gentiles to God. Hence he adds: And again it is written in Ps 117 (v. 4): Praise the Lord, all Gentiles, i.e., confess His goodness: "From the rising of the sun to its setting the name of the Lord is to be praised" (Ps 113:3); and let all the peoples, not only the Jewish people, praise him, i.e., confess His greatness, i.e., that His greatness exceeds all praise: "When you praise the Lord, exalt him as much as you can; for he will surpass even that" (Si 43:30); "From the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the Gentiles" (Mal 1:11). 1161. The fourth authority contains the reverence of the Gentiles toward Christ. Hence he continues: And again Isaiah says (11:10) ‘The root of Jesse shall come.’ Here he foretells the origin of Jesus, that He will be born of the seed of Jesse. For Jesse was David’s father. Therefore he says: The root of Jesse will come, from whose seed Christ will be born: "In that day the root of Jesse shall stand as an ensign to the people" (Is 11:10). Or Christ will be the root of Jesse, because although He came from Jesse according to bodily origin, yet it was His power that sustained him and gave him grace: "It is not you that support the root, but the root that supports you" (Rom 11:18). Then he touches on Christ’s office, adding: He who rises with such excellent grace that He is able to rule the Gentiles by leading them to divine worship, which no one had been able to do previously: "I will make the Gentiles your heritage. You shall rule them with a rod of iron" (Ps 2:8). Finally, he mentions the devotion of the Gentiles to Christ, saying: In him shall the Gentiles hope, i.e., to obtain through Him the inheritance of heavenly glory: "We have been born anew to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead" (I Pt 1:3). 575 1162. Then when he says, May the Lord of hope, he adds a prayer, saying: It has been stated that the Gentiles will hope in Christ, the God of hope, i.e., who pours this hope in us: "My hope, O Lord (Ps 71:5). Or the God of hope, i.e., the one to hope in, may he fill you with all you, i.e., spiritual, which is concerned with God: "The joy of the Lord is your strength" (Neh 8:10) and peace, through which a man is at peace in himself and with God and his neighbor: "Great peace have they who love your law" (Ps 119:165) in believing. As if to say: So that along with believing you may have peace and joy, which are effects of charity, as it says in Gal (5:22): "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace." Hence it is clear that he wishes them to have from God, the giver of hope, not only faith but charity, through which faith works, as it says in Gal (5:6) lest their faith be unformed and dead: "Faith without works is dead" (Jas 2:26). So that by the fullness of these virtues you may abound, by progressing from good to better, not only in hope but also in the power of the Holy Spirit, i.e., in charity, which is poured forth in your hearts by the Holy Spirit, as was said above (5:5); "God is able to provide you with every grace in abundance" (2 Cor 7:8).

1163. After instructing the Romans with general admonitions, the Apostle now begins to write certain familiar matters to them. First, matters pertaining to himself; secondly, matters pertaining to others, in chapter 16 [n. 1193]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he excuses his presumption in instructing and correcting them; secondly, he excuses his tardiness in not visiting them [v. 22; n. 1178]; thirdly, he seeks the favor of their prayers [v. 30; n. 1188]. In regard to the first he does two things: 577 first, he excludes a wrong interpretation of the reason for instructing and correcting them; secondly, he assigns the true cause [v. 15; n. 1165]. 1164. In regard to the first it should be noted that someone could believe that the Apostle wrote to the Romans, because he thought there was no one there who could instruct and correct them. But he excludes this, saying: I myself am satisfied, my brethren, by things I have heard about you that you are capable of admonishing those among you who need admonishing. Two things are required of one who would admonish properly: first, that he admonish not from anger or hatred but from love, as it says in Ps 141 (v. 5): "Let a good man rebuke me in kindness," and in Gal (6:1): "you who are spiritual should restore him in a spirit of gentleness." As to this he says: because you yourselves are full of goodness: "Fill your hands with burning coals from between the cherubim," i.e., with the fire of charity (Ez 10:2). Secondly, knowledge of the truth is required, because some have zeal for God in correcting, but it is not enlightened, as he said above (10:2). That is why he adds: filled with all knowledge, i.e., human and divine, of the Old Law and of the New: "In every way your were enriched with all speech and all knowledge" (I Cor 1:5). From this he concludes: so that you may be able on account of the love and knowledge, fittingly to instruct one another. For because "we all offend in many ways" (Jas 3:2), it is fitting that we admonish one another, as it says in Si (17:14): "He gave commandment to each of them concerning his neighbor." 578 1165. Then when he says, But on some points, he gives the true cause why he had admonished and corrected them. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that this belongs to the authority committed to him by his apostolate; secondly, how he used this power [v. 17; n. 1168]. 1166. He says, therefore: But very boldly, i.e., securely, I have written to you by attacking your errors and shortcomings, which of course could be ascribed to bold presumption, inasmuch as I did not fear your displeasure: "He goes out boldly to meet the weapons" (Jb 39:21). But this presumption is excused for three reasons: first, on account of the condition of those to whom he wrote, because even though among the Romans there were some to whom such rebukes seemed bold and presumptuous, there were others who needed a sharp rebuke on account of their insolent disposition: "Rebuke them sharply" (*** 1:13). And this is what he says: in part. As if to say: my writing does not seem to be bold to all of you but only to a part of you. Or it can be understood as meaning, on some points, on which he rebukes them. But it can also mean some part of the Church, i.e., which is with me. Secondly, the boldness is excused because of the Apostle’s intention. For he was not writing to them as though he regarded them as ignorant, but in order to jog their memories. And this is what he adds: by way of reminder, as though they had forgotten things they once knew: "Recall the former days when, after you were enlightened, you endured a hard struggle with sufferings" (Heb 10:32). 579 Thirdly, he is excused because of his apostolic authority which required this. Hence, he adds: because of the grace of the apostolate committed to me: "By the grace of God I am what I am" (I Cor 15:10). 1167. First, he describes the author of this grace when he says: which was given me by God. As if to say: not by men: "Paul an apostle, not from men nor through men" (Gal 1:1). Secondly, he specified that grace when he says: to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, i.e., to serve God in the conversion of the Gentiles, i.e., to serve God in the conversion of the Gentiles: "One should regard us as ministers of Christ" (I Cor 4:11); "Inasmuch as I am a minister of Christ, I will honor my ministry" (Rom 11:13). Thirdly, he shows the function of this grace when he says: sanctifying the gospel of God, i.e., showing that it is holy by the word of truth and the work of a good life and of miracles: "In the word of truth, the gospel which has come to you, as indeed in the whole world, is bearing fruit and growing" (Col 1:6); "All the words of my mouth are righteous" (Pr 8:8). Fourthly, he presents the end of this grace when he says: so that the offering of the Gentiles may be made, i.e., the nations converted by my ministry, in which he offered, as it were, a sacrifice and oblation to God, as it says in Phil (2:17): "Even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I am glad and rejoice with you all." May be made acceptable, namely, to God through a right intention: "Then wilt thou delight in right sacrifices, oblations and holocausts" (Ps 51:20) - and sanctified by the Holy Spirit, i.e., by charity and the other gifts of the Holy Spirit: "you 580 were sanctified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God" (I Cor 6:11). 1168. Then when he says, in Christ Jesus, he shows how he used his apostolic authority. First, he mentions the fruit it produced; secondly, the greatness of this fruit [v. 19b; n. 1172]; thirdly, he shows the difficulty [v. 20; n. 1173]. 1169. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he gives glory to God for the fruit he produced, saying: Therefore, because I have received such a grace and have carefully executed that for which it had been given tome, I have glory, i.e., merit worthy of glory, as a faithful minister: "I would rather die than have anyone deprive me of my ground for boasting" (I Cor 9:15). But I do not attribute this glory chiefly to myself; rather I have it in Christ Jesus, i.e., through Christ Jesus, by Whose power I was able to bring forth fruit: "Without me you can do nothing" (Jn 15:5). And because all things were handed over to Him by the Father, as it says in Mt (11:27), the Father abiding in Him also does the works (Jn 14:10). Therefore, he finally refers this glory to the Father, saying: to God, namely, the Father: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to thy name give glory" (Ps 115:1). Then he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying: For I will not venture to speak of anything except what Christ has wrought through me. As if to say: I will not speak about the fruit produced through me, if it was not produced by me. Otherwise, I would have no glory with God, even if with men. What I do relate are things not as 581 accomplished chiefly through me, but as done by Christ though me: "O Lord, thou hast wrought for us all our works" (Is 27:12). 1170. Secondly, he mentions the fruit itself, saying: to win obedience from the Gentiles. As if to say: My glory is this, that I have made the Gentiles obey the faith: "To bring bout the obedience of faith among all the nations" (Rom 1:5); "As soon as they heard of me they obeyed me" (Ps 18:44). 1171. Thirdly, he shows how he had brought the Gentiles to this obedience. But because he had said above (10:10): "Faith comes from hearing, and hearing through the word of Christ," he now says: by word, i.e., by the word of preaching the faith. But the arguments favoring the faith preached are the good life of the preachers; in regard to this he says: and by deed, as though I brought you to the faith through right deeds: "That they may see your good works" (Mt 5:16); and miraculous works, by which God bears witness to the doctrine preached, as it says in Mk (16:20): "the Lord worked with them and confirmed the message by the signs that attended it." Hence he adds: by the power of signs, i.e., of minor miracles, such as healing the sick, and wonders i.e., major miracles, which portend or manifest something great from their grandeur. But all this would be insufficient, unless the Holy Spirit stirred the hears of their hearers to believe. Hence, it says in Act (10:44) that while Peter was speaking the words of faith, the Holy Spirit fell on all who hard the word. Therefore, he adds: by the power of the Holy Spirit: "While God also bore witness by signs and wonders and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed according to his own will" (Heb 2:4). 1172. Then when he says, so that from Jerusalem, he shows the magnitude of the fruit by the multitude of places in which he preached, saying: So that beginning from 582 Jerusalem, where at the commencement of his conversion he preached in the Jewish synagogues, as it says in Ac (9:28). Thus, he fulfilled the word in Is (2:30): "Out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the law from Jerusalem," as far as Illyricum, which is on the Adriatic Sea across from Italy, I have fully preached the gospel of Christ, i.e., I filled all those places with the preaching of the Gospel. But lest anyone suppose that he followed a straight path from Jerusalem to Illyricum to preach the gospel, he adds: from Jerusalem as far round as Illyricum, namely, because he preached to the Gentiles in every direction around him and converted them to the faith: "Who has cleft a channel for the torrents of rain? (Jb 38:25). 1173. Then when he says, thus making, he shows how difficult it is to produce this fruit, for it is difficult to convert those entirely ignorant to the faith. First, therefore, he mentions the difficulty, saying: thus making it my ambition to preach the Gospel, not, indeed, where Christ has already been named, i.e., not among those who had heard the name of Christ: "People whom I had not known served me" (Ps 18:43); "Behold, you shall call nations that you know not, and nations that knew you not shall run to you" (Is 55:5). 1174. Then he gives the reason, saying: lest I build on another man’s foundation. Another man’s foundation can be interpreted in two ways: in one way heretical doctrine, which is alien to the foundation of the true faith: in this sense the word, lest, is taken causally. For the Apostle willed to preach to those who had not heard the name of Christ with the intention, because if his hearers had heard the teachings of false apostles, it would have been more difficult to lead them back to the truth. Hence, it says in Mt (7:26): "The man is foolish who builds his house on sand." 583 In another way, another’s foundation can mean the doctrine of the true faith preached by others. Then the word, lest, is taken in a consecutive sense. For the Apostle did not avoid preaching to those to whom others had preached; thus he preached to the Romans, whom Peter had previously instructed. But when he preached to those who had heard nothing about Christ, the result was that he was not building on another’s foundation, but he himself laid the first foundation of the faith: "As a wise architect, I laid a foundation" (I Cor 3:10). 1175. Secondly, he cites an authority for what he had said, saying: But as it is written (Is 52:15): They shall see who have never been told of him and they shall understand who have never heard of him. In these words the prophet seems to predict that the Gentiles will arrive at a more excellent way of knowing God than the Jews, who knew Him before. 1176. First, therefore, he shows its excellence with respect to the knowledge’s cause which is twofold, namely, the words heard and the things seen. For these two senses are capable of discipline. The Jews, therefore, arrived at a knowledge of Christ’s mysteries by words announced to them by the prophets: "The prophets who prophesied of the grace that was to be yours searched and inquired about this salvation; they inquired what person or time was indicated by the spirit of Christ within them when predicting the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory" (I Pt 1:10). But the Gentiles see such mysteries of Christ really fulfilled; hence, he adds: Because the Gentiles to whom nothing had been announced by the prophets concerning him, i.e., concerning Christ, as it had been announced to the Jews, will see the things 584 now fulfilled: "Many prophets and kings desired to see what you see and did not see it" (Lk 10:24). 1177. Secondly, he shows its excellence in regard to the manner of knowing, because the Jews had only heard the announcements of the prophets: "We have heard tidings from God and a message has been sent among the nations" (Ob 1:1). But the Gentiles obtained understanding from seeing. Hence, it is stated: and they, namely, the Gentiles, who previously had not heard about the Christ foretold by the prophets, shall understand, namely, the truth of the faith: "And now, O kings, understand" (Ps 2:10).

1178. After excusing himself for the presumption which could have been ascribed to him for instructing and correcting the Romans [n. 1163], the Apostle now explains why he has postponed visiting them. In regard to this he does three things: first, he mentions a past hindrance; secondly, his intention to visit [v. 23; n. 1180]; thirdly, he promises some fruit from his visit [v. 29; n. 1187]. 1179. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that I have preached the Gospel in many places in which the name of Christ had not been known. This is the reason why up to now I have so often been hindered by such an occupation from coming to you. 586 This hindrance has continued until now; hence he adds: and am prevented up to the present moment. This can refer to the vast number of occupations he had had in other places or even to divine providence, through which the Apostle was prevented from visiting them and also directed toward the salvation of others: "They went through the region of Phrygia and Galatia, having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia" (Ac 16:6). Hence above (1:13) he had said: "I often intended to come to you, but thus far have been prevented." And this is what is said in Jb (37:12) about the clouds, by which preachers are signified: "They turn round and round by his guidance, to accomplish all that he commands them." 1180. Then when he says, but now, he clarifies his intention to visit them: first, he promises to visit them; secondly, he tells why he must delay [v. 25; n. 1183]; thirdly, he mentions the goal of his visit [v. 28; n. 1186]. 1181. First, therefore, he says: Until now I have been prevented, but now since I no longer have any room for work, i.e., any need to remain in these regions, in which the faith was established by me, and since I have longed for many years to come to you, as he said above (1:11): "I long to see you that I may impart to you some spiritual gift." As I go to Spain—whither he planned to go in order to lay the foundations of the faith even in such a faraway place: "I will give you as a light to the nations that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth" (Is 49:6) -- hope to see you in passing. Thus, he gives them to understand that he wasn’t planning to go to them principally, because he considered that they had been sufficiently instructed by the teaching of Peter, who was the first apostle to preach to the Romans. 587 38 Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, book 1, chapter 4. And because the Romans then held dominion over the entire west, he hoped with their help and guidance to set out for Spain; hence, he adds: and to be sped on my journey there by you. Yet he intended to spend some time with them, because he adds: if I shall have enjoyed you, i.e., been consoled, as he said in (1:12): "that we may be mutually encouraged." And this in part, i.e., a part of time, because he planned to be consoled with them for a time. 1182. But against this is what Augustine says in his book On Christian Doctrine, that only those things should be enjoyed that make us blessed, namely the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.38 Therefore it is unfitting for the Apostle to say that he will enjoy the Romans. The answer is that, as Augustine says in the same place, a man should not be enjoyed in himself but in God, in line with the letter to Philemon (v. 20): "Yes, brother, I will enjoy you in the Lord," which means to delight in a man on account of God. And this is how we should understand what is said here, if I shall have enjoyed, namely in God. Or in part can refer to the good, whom he could enjoy in God. For the other part, namely, the wicked, he could not enjoy but could grieve over, as it says in 2 Cor (12:21): "Lest when I come God may humble me before you and I may have to mourn over many of those who sinned before." 1183. Then when he says, At present, however, he tells why he must postpone his visit. 588 In regard to this he does three things: first, he gives the reason, saying: At present, however, I am setting out, i.e., I am not coming to you at once, because I am setting out for Jerusalem to minister to the saints. In this regard what is written in Ac (4:34ff) should be noted, namely, that the Jews converted to the faith at the very beginning sold their possessions and lived in common from the revenue which, when it was exhausted and a great famine was imminent (Ac 11:27), the disciples, i.e., Christians, from different parts of the world, according to the amount each had, proposed to send help to the brethren residing in Judea. This they did, sending it to the elders by the hands of Barnabas and Paul. Therefore, the alms which the faithful brought to Jerusalem he calls ministering to the saints: "When I arrive, I will send those whom you accredit by letter to carry your gift to Jerusalem. If it seems advisable that I should go also, they will accompany me" (I Cor 16:3). 1184. Secondly, he explains what he had said about the ministry to the saints, saying: For Macedonia and Achaia, i.e., the faithful from both regions converted by him, have been pleased to make a collection, i.e., to collect something, for the poor of Christ, i.e., fore the use of the poor who are among the saints: "Give to the godly man, but do not help the sinner" (Sir 12:4), who are in Jerusalem living in poverty: "It is superfluous for me to write to about the suffering of the saints. For I know about your readiness, of which I boast about you to the people of Macedonia: (2 Cor 9:1). 1185. Thirdly, he assigns the reasons, the first of which is good pleasure; hence he says: For they were pleased to do it: Each must do as he has made up his mind, not reluctantly or under compulsion" (2 Cor 9:7). 589 The second cause is debt; hence he adds: and indeed they are in debt to them: "Pay all of them their due" (Rom 13:7). He assigns the reason for the debt, saying: for if the Gentiles have come to share in their spiritual blessings, i.e., of the Jews, namely, the blessings of divine knowledge and of the promises and of grace, as he says above (9:4): "To them belong the sonship and the glory" and in (11:17): "You were grafted in their place to share the richness of the olive tree." They were also made partakers of their spiritual blessings, because the Jews had sent them preachers. They ought also to be of service to them in material blessings: "In dividing by lot, give and take" (Si 14:15); "Take a psalm," i.e., spiritual things, "and give the timbrel," i.e., temporal things (Ps 81:2). From this is taken the argument that expenses are owed not only to those who preach but also to those who send preachers. 1186. Then when he says, when, therefore, he mentions the place from which he will come to them, saying: When, therefore, I have completed this, namely, ministering to the saints, and have delivered to them this fruit, i.e., the alms of the Gentiles, which is a fruit of their conversion: "Israel is an abundant vine that yields its fruit" (Hos 10:1); I shall go on by way of you to Spain. But the Apostle seems to be saying something false here; for there is no record of his ever being in Spain. For he had been arrested in Jerusalem and taken to Rome in chains, as it says in Ac (c. 28), where he was killed along with Peter. Some, therefore, say that as it says in Ac (28:16): "and when we come to Rome, Paul was allowed to stay by himself with the soldier that guarded him," and later it says 590 39 Part 2, case 22, question 2, can. 5. that he remained for two whole years in his dwelling; during that time, they say, he went to Spain. But because this is not certain, it can be said better that the Apostle did not say something false, because he intended to do what he said. Consequently, his words must be understood as suggesting his intention and not a future event about which he was not certain. Hence he was not able to predict this except under the condition which James mentions: "Instead you ought to say, ‘If the Lord wills’ and ‘If we shall live, we shall do this or that’" (Jas 4:15). And so the Apostle excuses himself in 2 Cor (1:17) for not visiting them, as he had promised: "Was I vacillating when I wanted to do this? Do I make my plans like a worldly man, ready to say Yes and No at once?" (2 Cor 1:17). And so, since he failed to do from a just cause what he had promised, he declares himself immune from levity, carnality and falseness. And this is how Pope Gelasius resolves the question, as can be found in the decretals:39 "Blessed Paul therefore should not be thought to deceive—God forbid!—or to show himself an adversary because, although he had promised to go to Spain, he did not fulfill that promise, being occupied by divine providence with more important matters. As far as his own will was concerned, he said in truth that he wanted to do it. But as regards the secrets of God’s plan—which as a man he could know, even though we was filled with the spirit of God—he did not in fact do it, being prevented by the heavenly plan." For even though he had the prophetic spirit, not all things are revealed to the prophets, as is clear in 2 King 4(:27), where Elijah says, "Her soul is in bitterness, and the Lord has concealed it from me, and has not told it to me." 591 1187. Then when he says, and I know, he foretells the fruit of his visit, saying: and I know, namely, from my confidence in God’s grace, that when I come to you, I shall come in the fullness of the blessing of Christ, i.e., Christ will give His blessing more abundantly to you in my coming, about which it says in Ps 84 (v. 7): "They shall go from strength to strength," and which Laban said to Jacob (Gen 32:7): "I have learned that God blessed me because of you." 1188. Then [n. 1163] when he says, I appeal to you, brethren, he asks them for the favor of their prayers: first, he seeks their prayers; secondly, he prays for them [v. 31; n. 1192]. 1189. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he urges them to pray for him for three reasons. First, from divine charity when he says: I appeal to you, brethren: "For love’s sake I prefer to appeal to you" (Phlm 1:9). Secondly, from their reverence for Christ, of Whom he was a minister, saying: by our Lord Jesus Christ, in Whom we are all one as stated above (12:5). Thirdly, from the gift of the Holy Spirit, which was handed over to his ministry; hence he adds: by the love of the spirit, which the Holy Spirit pours forth in our hearts, as was stated above (5:5). 1190. Secondly, he asks the help of their prayers, saying: that you help me in your prayers for me to God, namely, poured out for me: "A brother helped is like a strong city" (Pr 18:19). 592 Bu as the Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1526] says, the Apostle does not say this because he has less merit than others inferior to him, but he follows due order. First, that prayer be said by the Church for its ruler, as he says in I Tim (2:1): "First of all, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men, for kings and all who are in high position." Secondly, because many of the least, when they are assembled together, obtain more merit. Therefore, it is impossible that the prayers of many be ineffective" (Mt (18:19): "If two of you agree on earth about anything they ask, it will be done for them by my Father in heaven." Thirdly, that when many pray, many thanksgivings are heard, as it says in 2 Cor (1:11): "You also must help us by prayer, so that many will give thanks on our behalf for the blessing granted. 1191. Thirdly, he mentions things he wishes to be obtained by him, the first of which pertains to the enemies he had in Judea; hence he says: that I may be delivered from the unbelievers in Judea, who particularly attacked and hated Paul, because he confidently preached the end of the legal observances: "They have been told about you that you teach that Moses should be forsaken" (Ac 21:21). The second pertains to those into whose ministry he want. And this is what he adds: and that my service, i.e., the alms I minister to them, may be acceptable to the saints who are in Jerusalem, i.e., that from this they may be induced to pray for the Gentiles from whom they receive. The third pertains to those to whom he was writing: hence he adds: so that I may come to you with joy, and this by God’s will, against which he wanted to do nothing: "Asking that somehow by God’s will I may now at last succeed in coming to you" (Rom 1:10) and be refreshed in your company, i.e., that from your presence I may receive refreshment from my tribulations. 593 1192. Then when he says, the God of peace, he shows that he is praying for them, saying: The God of peace, i.e., the giver of peace, be with you all, by the fact that you are at peace with one another: "Agree with one another and the God of peace will be with you" (2Cor 13:11). He adds, Amen, i.e., let it be so: "Let the people say, ‘Amen’" (Ps 106:48).

1193. After mentioning certain personal matters about himself to the Romans to whom he was writing, the Apostle now presents certain personal matters pertaining to others. In regard to this he does three things: first, he suggests what they should do for others; secondly, he tells what other do to them [v. 23; n. 1221]; thirdly, he ends the epistle with thanksgiving [v. 25; n. 1223]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he indicates whom they should welcome; secondly, he shows whom they should avoid [v. 17; n. 1213]. In regard to the first he requests that certain persons in particular be welcomed; secondly, he points out in a general way how to greet them [v. 16; n. 1211]; thirdly, he greets them on the part of the faithful [v. 21; n. 1212]. 1194. In regard to the first he mentions a certain Corinthian woman who went to Rome. He recommends her to them, describing her, first of all, by name, saying: I 596 commend to you Phoebe, who although devoted to God, did not have sufficient influence not to need letters of recommendation, as he once said of himself: "Do we need, as some do, letters of recommendation?" (2 Cor 3:1). Secondly, he describes her religion and faith, saying our sister. For all the women believers were called sisters and all the men brothers: "You are all brothers" (Mt 23:8). Thirdly, from her pious activity, when he says: who is in the ministry of the church at Cenchreae, a port city of the Corinthians, where some Christians were gathered whom this woman had served, just as it was said of Christ Himself (Lk 8:3) that certain women provided for Him out of their means. And about the widow to be enrolled I Tim (5:10) says: "If she has shown hospitality and has washed the feet of the saints." 1195. Then he mentions two things he wants done for her, the first of which is that she be honorable received. And this is what he says: that you may receive her in the Lord, i.e., for the love of God, as befits the saints, for it says in Mt (10:41): "He who receives a righteous man because he is a righteous man shall receive a righteous man’s reward." Instead of as befits the saints [digne sanctis], some books have "worthily enough" [digne satis], i.e., fittingly; but those texts do not agree with the Greek. The second is that they be solicitous in helping her; hence he adds: and help her, namely, by affording advice and aid in any enterprise she may need you. For she possibly had something to settle in Caesar’s curia. 597 1196. But something in I Th (4:11) seems to be opposed to this recommendation, for it says: "Take care of your own business." As if to say: do not get involved in other people’s affairs. The answer is that one can help in another’s affairs in the ways: first, in a worldly way, i.e., for the favor of men or for gain; and this does not befit God’s servants. "No soldier of God gets entangled in civilian pursuits" (2 Tim 2:4). In another way someone may help in another’s affairs out of piety; for example, to help the needy and the wretched, and this is religious according to Jas (1:27): Religion pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself unstained from this world." It is in this way that the Apostle speaks here. 1197. Finally, the Apostle tells why this is owed to her, saying: She has been a help of many of myself as well: "Tell the righteous that it shall be well with them, for they shall eat the fruit of their deeds" (Is 3:10); "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy" (Mt 5:7). 1198. Then he recommends other persons connected with him to be greeted, saying: Greet Prisca and Aquila, who was her husband, but he mentions her first, perhaps because of the greater devotion of her faith, my fellow workers in Christ, i.e., in preaching the faith of Christ. For he stayed with them in Corinth, as is found in Acts (18:1-3). 1199. Who risked their necks for my life, i.e., put themselves in danger of death to save my life, an indication of the greatest charity: "Greater love has no man than that he lay down his life for his friends" (Jn 15:13). 598 This seems to have happened at Corinth where Paul suffered persecution, as is found in Acts (18:6). Or perhaps it is better to say that others exposed themselves to danger for the Apostle. For what is read in Acts (18:21) occurred when Prisca and Aquila left Rome for Corinth. But the Apostle wrote this, when he thought they were still at Rome. Now the Apostle’s life was necessary not so much for himself as for others, as he says in Phil (1:24): "But to remain in the flesh is more necessary on our account." Therefore he continues: to whom not only I give thanks but also all the Church of the Gentiles, whose apostle and teacher I am: "A teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (I Tim 2:7); greet also the church in their house. For they had many believers assembled in their house. 1200. Then he wants another person joined to him by love to be greeted, saying: Greet my beloved Epaenetus, who was the first convert in Asia for Christ. This lent him great dignity: "You have come to the assembly of the firstborn, who are enrolled in heaven" (Heb 12:23). But at that time he was in Rome. 1201. Then he says: Greet Mary, who has worked hard among you to restore concord among them, and when she failed in her endeavor, she notified the Apostle: "The fruit of good labors is renowned." (Wis 3:15). Then he says, Greet Andronicus and Junias, whom he describes, first, from their race when he says: my kinsmen. This shows that they were Jews, about whom he said above (9:3): "They are my kinsmen by race." Secondly, from the suffering they endured for Christ, saying" and my fellow prisoners. For they had been in prison once with the Apostle: "with far more imprisonments" (2Cor 11:23). Thirdly, from their authority when he says: they are men of note among the 599 apostles, i.e., noble among the preachers. Fourthly, from the time, when he says: and they were in Christ before me. For they had been converted before the Apostle and thus were owed greater respect: "Do not rebuke an older man, but exhort him as you would a father" (I Tim 5:1). 1203. Then he says, Greet Ampliatus, my beloved in the Lord, beloved in the love of charity, which is in Christ: "God is my witness, how I yearn for you all with the affection of Christ Jesus" (Phil 1:8). 1204. Then he says, Greet Urbanas, our fellow worker in Christ, i.e., in preaching the faith: "A brother helped is like a strong city" (Pr 18:19), and my beloved Stachys. He mentions them together, perhaps because they lived together or were connected in some other way. 1205. Then he says, Greet Apelles, who is approved in Christ, perhaps through certain tribulations: "When he has tried me, I shall come forth as gold" (Jb 23:10). 1206. Then he says, Greet all who of the house, i.e., of the family, of Aristobulus, in whose house many believers were gathered whom he does not greet, perhaps because they were absent for some reason. Then he says, Greet my kinsman Herodion, who from the designation is said to be Jewish. Then he says, Greet all who belong to the family of Narcissus, who is said to have been a presbyter and wandered through desert places to comfort the faithful. Hence the Apostle, knowing that he was away, did not ask that he be greeted but his family. Yet there were some unbelievers in this family, and therefore to note the difference, he says: who are in the Lord, because he was asking only believers to be 600 greeted: "If anyone comes to you and does not bring the doctrine, do not receive him into your house or give him any greeting" (2 Jn v. 10). 1207. Then he says, Greet Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who have labored in the Lord, i.e., in ministering to the saints, which the Lord regards as done to Himself, as it says in Mt (25:40): "As you did it to one of these, the least of my brethren, you did it to me." Then he says, Greet the beloved Persis, whom the Apostle especially loved for his devotion. Hence he adds: who has worked hard in the Lord, i.e., by exhorting others and ministering to the saints, and even in poverty and other spiritual works: "In toil and hardship, in hunger and thirst" (2 Cor 11:27). 1208. Then he says, Greet Rufus, elect in the Lord, i.e., in the grace of Christ: "He chose us in him before the foundation of the world" (Eph 1:4); also his mother, according to the flesh, and mine, because she was his mother as a benefactor. For she had served the Apostle at one time, although she was not in Rome: "Older women like mothers, younger women like sisters, in all purity" (I Tim 5:2). 1209. Then he says, Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas and all the brethren who are with them. He greets them together, because they lived together in harmony: "God gives the lonely a home to live in" (Ps 68:6). 1210. Then he says, Greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas and all the saints who are with them, i.e., sanctified in the faith of Christ: "You were washed, you were sanctified" (I Cor 6:11). 1211. Then he shows them in general how to greet others, saying: Greet one another with a holy kiss, which he says to distinguish it from a sensual kiss, about which 601 Pr (7:13) says: "She seizes him and kisses him"; and to distinguish it from a deceitful kiss, about which Pr (27:6) says: "Better are wounds from a friend than the fraudulent kisses of an enemy." The holy kiss is given as a sign of the Blessed Trinity: "O that he would kiss me with the kiss of his mouth" (Song 1:2). From this the custom arose in the Church whereby the faithful give one another the kiss of peace during the solemnities of the Mass. 1212. Then he greets them on behalf of the other churches, saying: all the churches of Christ greet you, i.e., those assembled in the name and faith of Christ, because all wish your salvation and pray for you: "Pray for one another, that you may be saved" (Jas 5:16).

1213. After indicating whom they should greet, the Apostle now shows them whom to avoid. In regard to this he does three things: first, he teaches whom they should avoid; secondly, he gives the reason [v. 18; n. 1218]; thirdly, he promises them divine help to implement this [v. 20; n. 1220]. 1214. And because those whom he wished them to avoid crept in deceptively under the cloak of piety, as it says in Mt (7:15): They come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves," he urges them to be cautious, saying: I appeal 603 to you, brethren, to observe those who create dissensions and difficulties in opposition to the doctrine you have been taught. 1215. Here, first of all, it should be noted that to observe is nothing more than to consider carefully: which, of course, is sometimes taken in a good sense and sometimes in an evil sense. It is taken in an evil sense when someone carefully considers the condition and progress of someone in order to inflict harm, as it says in Ps 37 (v. 12): "The wicked plots against the righteous and gnashes his teeth against him," and in Lk (14:1) it says: "And they were watching him." In a good sense it is taken in one way, when one considers God’s precepts to obey them: "Observe him and hearken to his voice" (Ex 23:21). In another way, when a person considers good men to imitate them, as it says in Phil (3:17): "Brethren, join in imitating me and mark those who so live as you have an example in us." Thirdly, the evil are observed as persons to be avoided; and that is the way it is taken here. 1216. For there were certain Jewish converts to the faith who preached that the practices of the Law must be observed. From this followed dissensions and sects in the Church, since some adhered to their error but others continued in the true faith: "Dissension, sects…." (Gal 5:20). Then followed hindrances and stumbling blocks already discussed in v. 14, while some would judge others and some would spurn others who caused dissensions and hindrances: "Remove every obstruction from my people’s way" (Is 57:14). But he says: in opposition to the doctrine you have been taught by the true apostles of Christ, to show that such dissensions and stumbling blocks derive from 604 false doctrine: "If anyone is preaching to you a Gospel other than the one I preached to you, let him be accursed" (Gal 1:9). 1217. Secondly, he warns them that once known they should be avoided; hence he says: Avoid them, i.e., fly from their doctrine and company: "Depart from me, you evildoers" (Ps 119:115). 1218. Then when he says, For such persons, he assigns two reasons for what he had said, the first of which is taken on the part of those whom he wants avoided. First, he describes their condition, saying: Such persons do not serve our Lord Christ but their own bellies. For they preached not for the glory of Christ but for revenue, in order to fill their belly: "For many, of whom I have often told you and now tell you even with tears, live as enemies of the cross of Christ. Their god is their belly" (Phil 3:18). Secondly, he describes their deception, saying: by fair and flattering words they deceive the hearts of the simpleminded, i.e., of the innocent and inexperienced: "The simple believe everything" (Pr 14:15). By fair words they pretend to be holy: "They speak peace with their neighbor, while mischief is in their hearts" (Ps 28:3). And blessings, with which they bless and flatter those who follow them: "My people, those who call you blessed mislead you" (Is 3:12); "I will curse your blessings" (Mal 2:2). 1219. He assigns the second reason from a trait of the Romans, who found it easy to follow good and evil. First, he commends them for their readiness to accept the good, saying: Your obedience, by which you obey the faith so easily, is known in every place on account of the dominion the Romans then exercised over other nations. Hence, anything done by the 605 Romans was easily divulged to others. "Your faith is proclaimed in all the world" (Rom 1:8). Therefore, I rejoice over you, because you obey the faith; and this in charity, about which he says in I Cor (13:6) that love does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right. Secondly, he cautions them against evil, saying: I would have you wise in what is good, (5:21); and guileless as to what is evil, lest through some simplicity you slip into evil, that your simplicity be such that you deceive no one into evil: "Be wise as serpents and simple as doves" (Mt 10:16). On the other hand it is said of certain persons: "They are skilled in doing evil, but how to do good they know not" (Jer 4:22). 1220. Then when he says, Then the God of peace, he promises them divine help against such deceivers. First, he makes the promise when he says: But the God of peace, i.e., its author, Who hates the dissensions they cause, will crush Satan, i.e., the devil, who is trying to deceive you through these false apostles, under your feet, because you will overcome him by your wisdom. And he will do this soon, namely, when he comes: "Behold, I have given you power to tread upon serpents and scorpions and over all the power of the enemy" (Lk 10:19); "You shall tread down the wicked, for they will be ashes under the soles of your feet" (Mal 4:3). Secondly, he says a prayer to obtain this when he says: The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you, which is enough to guard you: "My grace is sufficient for you" (2 Cor 12:9). 1221. Then when he says, Timothy, he greets them on the part of others, saying: Timothy, my fellow worker greets you: "I have sent you Timothy, who is my dearest and 606 faithful son in the preaching of the gospel" (I Cor 4:17). He adds: so do Lucius and Jason and Sosipater, my kinsmen, who were Jews. Tertius, Paul’s secretary, was allowed to greet the Romans personally with Paul’s consent. Hence he adds: I, Tertius, the writer of this letter, greet you in the Lord. Then when he says: Gaius, who is my host, was the person to whom John wrote in his third letter commending the charity he exercised toward the saints; and host to the whole church, namely, who were assembled in his house or who were in that region. Then he says: Erastus, the city treasurer, i.e., who guarded the city’s money, and your brother Quartus greet you. 1222. Then he greets them on his own, saying: The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen. 1223. He finishes the epistle with thanksgiving, saying: now to him, namely, to God Who is the Trinity, who is able to strengthen you: "After you have suffered a little, he will himself restore, establish and strengthen you" (I Pt 5:10); and this in the faith which is according to the Gospel, namely according to the Gospel I preach: "Whether, then, it was I or they, so we preach and so you believed" (I Cor 15:11); and also according to the preaching of Jesus Christ, Who first preached the Gospel, as it says in Heb (2:3): "It was declared at first by the Lord. Hence Mt (4:23) states that Jesus went about preaching the Gospel of the kingdom. 1224. Then he adds, according to the revelation of the mystery, i.e., the secret, which can refer to what he had said, namely, "according to my Gospel," either because the secret of the divine incarnation is revealed in the Gospel, in accord with the above (1:17), "in it the justice of God is revealed"; or because the Gospel was revealed to the 607 Apostle himself: "God has revealed to us through the Spirit" (I Cor 2:10). Of this secret it says in Is 24(:16), "My secret to myself." Or it can be referred better to the word he had used, "to strengthen." As if to say: God can strengthen you in my Gospel and preaching; and this according to the revelation of the mystery, i.e., of the secret, namely, about the conversion of the Gentiles, as he says in Eph (3:8): "To me the least of saints this grace was given, to preach to the Gentiles the mystery hidden for ages in God." 1225. Hence, he continues: kept secret for eternal ages, namely, because it had been hidden among men that the Gentiles were to be converted to the faith. He calls these "eternal ages," as though lasting a long time, because this was hidden from the beginning of the world: "Glorious art thou, more wonderful than the eternal mountains" (Ps 76:4). It can be said that the long ages are eternity itself about which Is (57:15) says: "The high and lofty One who inhabits eternity." So that just as the simple essence of God is described in terms of a likeness to bodily dimensions, as Jb (11:9) says: "its measure is longer than the earth and broader than the sea," so His simple eternity is called eternal times, inasmuch as it contains all times. 1226. Then he continues: But which, namely, the mystery, is now disclosed, i.e., about the conversion of the Gentiles, through the prophetic writings, i.e., as the prophets foretold. Hence, he says in Eph (3:5ff): "This mystery was not made known to the sons of men in other generations as it has now been revealed to his holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit, that is, now the Gentiles are fellow heirs, members of the same body…" But it was made known by fulfillment of a work proceeding from God’s command. Hence, according to the command of the eternal God, Who by an eternal 608 decree accomplishes His will in time. This command of God to bring about the obedience of faith is made known to all nations, i.e., that all nations should obey the faith: "to bring about the obedience of faith among the nations" (Rom 1:5). 1227. But if we speak of the incarnation, the text can be constructed thus: of the mystery, I say, kept secret for eternal ages, because previously it was not so manifest. Which mystery has now been made known through the prophetic writings, which predicted this, according to a command of the eternal God, who willed the mystery of the incarnation to become known, and this to bring about obedience to the faith among all nations. A mystery, I say, known to the wise God alone, because He alone knew it and knew those to whom He wished it to be revealed," for as it says in I Cor (2:11): "no one knows the things of God except the spirit of God." Or it can be understood of Him Who alone is wise, i.e., by His very nature, as it says in Mk (10:18): "No one is good but God alone." This does not exclude the Son, because the perfection of the whole Trinity is the same; just as, conversely, when it is said: "No one knows the Father but he Son" (Mt 11:27), the Father is not excluded from knowledge of Himself. 1228. He adds, through Jesus Christ. This does not mean that the Father is wise through Jesus Christ; because, since in God to be wise is the same as to be, it would follow that the Father would be wise through the Son - which is fallacious. But this must be referred to what he had said above (v. 26): "it is now disclosed." Namely, through Jesus Christ. To whom, i.e., to Jesus Christ, be honor and glory, through the reverence paid by every creature: "At the name of Jesus every knee shall bend" (Phil 2:10), and glory namely, in regard to the full godhead, as Phil (2:11) says: "And every tongue 609 610 confess that Jesus Christ is Lord in the glory of God the Father," not for a time, but for evermore: "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever" (Heb 13:8). To confirm its truth he adds: Amen. 1229. Or it can be constructed thus: Known to the only wise God, to whom be glory through Jesus Christ, who glorified God, as it says in Jn (17:4): "I glorified thee on earth."

Therefore he says Paul, — a name to be revered by all the faithful who have been taught by him — a prisoner. 2 Timothy 2:9: ‘in which I suffer even to bonds, as a criminal’. For now he is a prisoner in Rome, but of Christ Jesus, to give the reason for his chains. For it is highly praiseworthy to be imprisoned for the sake of Christ; for in this he is blessed. Matthew 5:10: ‘Blessed are they who suffer persecution for justice’ sake...’ 2 Peter 4:15: ‘Let none of you suffer as a murderer, or a thief, or a slanderer, or as one coveting what belongs to others. But if he suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God under this name.’ Acts 5.41: ‘So they departed from the Sanhedrin, rejoicing that they had been counted worthy to suffer disgrace for the name of Jesus.’
And our brother Timothy... They are brothers with regard to perfect faith. Philippians 2:20: ‘For I have no one so like-minded who is so genuinely solicitous for you.’ He joins Timothy to himself, that he might more easily succeed, because it is impossible that the prayers of many will not be heard.
Then he mentions the persons greeted. And first the principal person greeted, then others, particularly the husband and wife whose house it is, to whom the servant is obliged. To Philemon, our beloved and fellow worker, and to Appia, beloved sister... Beloved, he says on account of her good works. John 13:34: ‘This is my command, that you love one another.’ Fellow worker, because he ministers to the saints. Proverbs 18.19: ‘A brother that is helped by his brother is like a strong city.’ Then he mentions Archippus our fellow soldier, who was so powerful at Colossae that all Christians were under his protection.

‘If you have a faithful servant, let him be to you as your own soul’ (Sirach 33:31). The wise man shows three things concerning master and slave, namely, what is required on the side of the servant; what ought to be the feeling of the master towards the servant; and what is the use of the servant. From the servant fidelity is asked, for in this he is a good servant, because what he is and all that he has he ought to give to the master. Matthew 24-45: ‘Who, do you think, is the faithful and prudent servant...’ And he says, ‘if he is faithful’, because fidelity is found in few. Proverbs 20:6: ‘But who shall find a faithful man?’ The master ought to feel towards his servant as a friend, hence it is said, ‘as his own soul’. For this is proper to friends, that they are of one mind in what they will and what they do not will. Acts 4.32: ‘Now the multitude of the believers were of one heart and one soul.’ By which we are given to understand that there is a consensus of master and servant, when the faithful servant becomes a friend. As for his use, he should be treated like a brother, for he is a brother, both with respect to generation of nature, because they have the same author —Job 31.13: ‘If I have despised to abide judgement with my man-servant’; Malachi 2:10: ‘Have we not all one father? Did not one God created us?’ —and with respect to the generation of grace, which is the same for both. Galatians 3:27: ‘For all you who have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ. There is neither Jew nor Greek; there is neither slave nor freeman; there is neither male nor female. For you are all one in Christ Jesus.’ Matthew 23:8: ‘And all you are brothers.’ These words are relevant to the matter of this epistle. For as it was shown above how spiritual prelates should relate to their subjects, so here he shows how temporal masters should relate to their temporal servants, and how the faithful servant to his master.
The occasion of the epistle is this. At Colossae an important Christian had a servant who secretly fled to Rome where he was baptized by the Apostle who now writes on his behalf. First he gives a greeting, followed by the narrative of the epistle. In the greeting he mentions persons who send their greeting and then the recipients and finally the good hoped for.