Thomas Aquinas

1081. After showing how one ought to become perfect [n. 953], the Apostle now shows how the perfect should act toward the imperfect. First, he shows that they ought not scandalize or judge them; secondly, that they ought to uphold them, in chapter 15 [n. 1142]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he forbids improper judgments; 533 secondly, he forbids placing stumbling blocks before the weak [v. 13b; n. 1115]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he gives an admonition; secondly, he explains it [v. 2; n. 1083]; thirdly, he assigns a reason [v. 3b; n. 1090]. 1082. In regard to the first it should be noted that in the early Church some of the Jews converted to Christ believed that the practices of the Law must be observed along with the Gospel, as is clear from Ac (v. 15). These the Apostle calls "weak in the faith of Christ," as though not yet perfectly believing that faith in Christ is sufficient for salvation. He calls those perfect or strong in faith who believed that the faith of Christ was to be observed without the practices of the Law. And there were some of both types among the believers in Rome. Therefore, the Apostle addresses the perfect in faith, saying: We have said that you should put on the Lord Jesus Christ, but welcome, i.e., join to yourselves in a spirit of charity and support, the man who is weak in faith, to whom can be applied the words of Wis (9:5): "I am a man who is weak and short-lived, with little understanding of judgment and laws"; "Welcome one another, therefore, as Christ has welcomed you" (Rom 15:7); "Help a poor man for the commandment’s sake" (Sir 29:9). But not for disputes of opinions, i.e., not discussing the fact that one’s opinion is contrary to another’s. For those who observed the practices of the Law considered as violators those who did not observe them; and those who did not observe them despised as errant and ignorant those who did observe them: "Their conflicting thoughts accuse or perhaps excuse them" (Rom 2:15). 534 1083. Then when he says, One believes, he explains what he had said: first, he shows who are weak in faith; secondly, how disputes over opinions are to be avoided [v. 3; n. 1089]. 1084. In regard to the first it should be noted that among the observances of the Law one dealt with distinguishing among foods, because some foods were forbidden in the Law, as is clear from Lev (11:2ff). Therefore, the Apostle mentions this in particular, saying: One believes, namely, the one perfect in faith, that he may eat anything, since he does not consider himself bound to the observance of the Law: "Not what goes into the mouth defiles a man" (Mt 15:11); "Everything created by God is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanksgiving" (I Tim 4:4). 1085. It was not because they were naturally unclean that certain foods were forbidden in the Old Law. For just as in the case of words the word, "fool" signifies something not good, although the word itself is good, so in the case of animals, some animal is good according to its nature but evil in what it signifies, as a pig which signifies uncleanness. Therefore, the ancients were forbidden to eat its flesh, for in avoiding it they signified avoidance of uncleanness. For the entire life of that earlier people was centered on figures. But with the coming of Christ, Who is the truth, the figures ceased. 1086. He adds in regard to the weak: while the weak man eats only vegetables. As if to say: He eats those foods which involve nothing unclean forbidden in the Law. For among the classes of animals, say of land, sky and water, some classes were permitted and some forbidden; but no herbs or trees were forbidden, as is clear in Lev (v. 11). 535 There can be two reasons for this: one is that the produce of the earth had been granted man to eat from the beginning: "Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree with seed in its fruit; you shall have them for food" (Gen 1:29). But the first permission to eat flesh seems to have been granted after the flood. Hence it says in Gen (9:3): "As I gave you the green plants, I give you everything," I.e., types of animals. The other reason is that in Paradise man had transgressed the first prohibition about abstaining from certain fruits of the earth, as is clear in Gen (v. 3); for this reason a similar prohibition was not repeated. 1087. But since the practices of the Law ceased during the passion of Christ, it seems out of place for the Apostle to permit those weak in faith to abstain from foods forbidden in the Law, a practice no longer granted to Christians by the Church. But according to Augustine, three periods of time respecting the practices of the Law must be distinguished. The first is the time before Christ, when the practices of the Law were in full vigor and still alive. The second is the time after the passion of Christ but before the spreading of the Gospel, when the practices were dead, because no one was bound by them; and when they were practiced, no one benefited by them. Although dead, they were not death-dealing, because the Jews converted to Christ could practice them without sin. It is to this time that the Apostle refers here. The third is the time after the spreading of the Gospel, when the practices of the Law were not only dead but death-dealing, so that whoever practiced them sinned mortally. 1088. The Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1512] explains this in another way, namely, that the weak person is the one prone to fall into sensual vices. Such a person should be 536 advised to eat vegetables, i.e., mild and meager foods, which do not ferment vices, and to abstain from foods which stimulate sensual desire. But a stronger person believes that he can eat anything without danger. This difference appears between Christ’s disciples, who did not fast because they were strengthened by Christ’s presence, and the disciples of John the Baptist, who fasted. Hence, too, those who perform penances abstain from certain foods, not because they are unclean, but in order to restrain sensual desire. 1089. Then when he says, Let him who eats, he explains how to avoid differences of opinion. First, in regard to the perfect he says: Let him who eats, namely, with a secure conscience or even without danger of sensual desire, not despise him who abstains from certain foods, as weak in faith or prone to sensual vices: "Woe to you, despiser, will you not be despised in turn?" (Is 33:1); "He who rejects you rejects me" (Lk 10:16). Secondly, in regard to the weak, saying: and let him who abstains from certain foods, either because he is weak in faith or because he is prone to sensual desire, not pass judgment on him who eats as though he were a transgressor of the Law or as rushing headlong into sensual vices: "Judge not that you may not be judged" (Mt 7:1); "You have no excuse, O man, when you judge another" (Rom 2:1). 1090. Then when he says, for God has welcomed him, he assigns two reasons why we should abstain from false judgment. The second is given at his Master [v. 4b; n. 1094]; the third at You who judge [v. 10; n. 1105]. The first reason is based on the authority of the one judging, hence: first, he shows that this authority belongs to God [v. 3c]; 537 secondly, he concludes that judgment does not belong to men [v. 4; n. 1092]. 1091. First, therefore, he says: I have been correct in saying that one who eats should not judge him who does not, for God has welcomed him: "I took two staff," i.e., two peoples (Zech 11:7); "He drew me out of many waters" (Ps 18:16). But the one who is drawn to the judgment of a superior should not be judged by an inferior. 1092. Therefore, he concludes, Who are you, i.e., of what authority and power are you, to pass judgment on the servant of another? For a judge must have authority, as it says in Ex (2:14): "Who made you a prince and a judge over us?" "Man, who made me a judge or divider over you" (Lk 12:14). 1093. But from this reasoning it seems to follow that a man’s judgment about another man is illicit. The answer is that a man’s judgment is licit, as long as he acts with divinely granted authority. Hence, it says in Dt (1:16): "Hear them and judge what is righteous," and later he adds, "Judgment is God’s," i.e., passed with God’s authority. But if someone desires to usurp judgment over matters not divinely granted him to judge, the judgment is rash, just as if a judge delegated by the Pope wished to go beyond the limits of his mandate. But God has reserved to Himself the judging of hidden things, which are mainly the thoughts of the heart and the future. Therefore, if anyone presumed to judge about these matters, the judgment would be rash. Hence Augustine says in The Lord’s Sermon on the Mount: "A judgment is rash in these two cases, since there is uncertainty about the intention with which something was done, or uncertainty about the future of one who now seems to be good or evil." 538 1094. Then when he says: It is before his own master that he stands or falls, he presents the second reason, which is taken from the end of merit or demerit. For one could say that although a man has no authority to judge, he should involve himself in the judgment of another on account of the harm or benefit that comes from it. But the Apostle says here that this pertains to God rather than to man. And so even for this reason we should leave to God judgments about our neighbor, unless we are acting in His stead in judging by authority committed to us. In regard to this he does three things: first, he states his proposition; secondly, he gives an example [v. 5; n. 1097]; thirdly, he proves the proposition [v. 6; n. 1099]. 1095. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he proposes that whatever happens to man pertains to God when he says: Before his master he stands, i.e., by doing right: "Our feet have been standing within your gates, O Jerusalem" (Ps 122:2, or falls, i.e., by sinning: "Fallen, no more to rise is the virgin Israel" (Am 5:1). He presents it as a disjunctive, stands or falls, on account of the uncertainty, for many seem to fall who stand, and vice versa, as it says in Ec (8:10): "then I saw the wicked buried; they used to go in and out of the holy place and were praised in the city, where they had done such things." But the Apostle is speaking here in terms of a likeness to a human servant, to whose master pertains everything done in regard to him. Nor should we suppose that God is harmed or benefited, if a man stands or falls. For it says in Jb (35:6): "If you have sinned, what do you accomplish against him. If you are righteous, what do you give him." But in relation to men acts of righteousness look 539 to God’s glory: "That they may see your good works and give glory to your Father in heaven" (Mt 5:16). The fact that we fall by sinning is for men the occasion for blaspheming God: "The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles" (Rom 2:24). Or the words It is before his own master that he stands or falls should be explained as regarding the judgment of his Master: "The one who judges me is the Lord" (1Cor 4:4). 1096. Secondly, he shows that it pertains to God to judge a man, saying, And he will be upheld. As if to say: Even though someone now falls by sinning, it is possible that he will stand again. And this will certainly happen, if he has been predestined: "Will he not rise again from where he lies?" (Ps 41:8); "Rejoice not over me, O my enemy, when I fall, I shall rise (Mic 7:8). For this reason if we see someone obviously sinning, we should not despise him and rashly judge that he will never rise again; rather, we should presume that he will stand again, not considering the human condition but God’s power. Hence, when he says: For God is able to make him stand, we should presume that He will make him stand again on account of His goodness: "The Spirit entered into me and set me upon my feet" (Ez 3:24), just as Paul said earlier: "And even the others, if they do not persist in their unbelief, will be grafted in, for God has the power to graft them in again (11:23). 1097. Then when he says, one man esteems, he exemplifies what he had said. First, he proposes that human opinions vary, saying: I say that he stands or falls before his own master, because one man esteems one day as better than another, i.e., he judges between one day and another, so that he abstains on one day and not on another. This seems to refer to those weak in faith, who suppose that the practices of the Law must still 540 be observed. For it says in Lev (23:27): "on the tenth day of this seventh month is the day of atonement; and you shall afflict yourselves on this day." And in Jdt (8:6) it is stated that Judith fasted all the days of her life, except on Sabbaths, new moons and feasts of the house of Israel. Another man esteems all days alike as far as observing the practices of the Law were concerned, because these had now ceased. Hence this seems to refer to the perfect in faith: "Bless his name from day to day" (Ps 96:2). This can also refer to cases of abstaining performed to control sensual desires. Some abstain in this manner every day; for example, those who always abstain from meat or wine or fast, although some abstain on certain days and not on others: "For everything there is a season" (Ec 3:1). 1098. Secondly, he shows that all these things can pertain to the glory of God, saying: Let everyone be fully convinced in his own mind, i.e., be left to his own judgment: "God made man from the beginning and left him in the hands of his own counsel" (Sir 15:14). But this seems to apply to things that are not of themselves evil. In things that are of themselves evil, however, man must not be left to follow his own mind. But that a person discriminates between days seems to be evil of itself according to the first explanation. For it says in Gal (4:10): "You observe days and months and seasons and years! I fear that I have labored over you in vain." And he is speaking there about those who claimed that days must be observed according to the ceremonies of the Law. The answer is that the Apostle is speaking here in regard to that time in which it was lawful for Jews converted to the faith to observe the practices of the Law. But in 541 regard to the second explanation it seems to be illicit for him to say: "Another man esteems all days alike." For there are some days on which it is unlawful to fast. For Augustine says in a letter to Casulanus: "Whoever things that a fast should be decreed on the Lord’s day would not be a small scandal to the Church, and rightfully so. For on those days about which the Church or Sacred Scripture has decreed nothing definite, the customs of the people of God and the decrees of the major authorities must be considered the Law. And in the Decrees it is written: If on account of a public penance received from a priest a presbyter were to fast without any other need on the Lard’s day, let him be anathema." But one should understand that the Apostle is speaking here about those abstinences that can be licitly undertaken on any day without clashing with the common custom, or with the customs established by those in authority [a maioribus]. 1099. Then when he says, he who observes, he proves his proposition, namely, that each one stands or falls before his own master. And he does this in three ways. First, he proves it by appealing to the act of believers; secondly, by their intention [v. 7; n. 1101]; thirdly, by their condition [v. 8; n. 1103]. 1100. First, therefore, he proves how each of the faithful stands or falls before his mater, because in everything he does according to his conscience, he gives thanks to God. Hence he says: He who observes the day by abstaining one day and refraining from it on another day, observes it in honor of the Lord, i.e., he discriminates between foods out of reverence for God, just as we ourselves distinguish between the vigils of feasts when we 542 fast, and the feast days when we break the fast out of reverence for God: "Why is any day better than another and light better than light" (Sir 33:7). Then he speaks with respect to those who esteem all days alike,. Some of these ceased from fasting every day, as Mt (9:14) says that Christ’s disciples did not fast. Hence he says: He also who eats, namely, every day, eats in honor of the Lord, i.e., to the glory of God; which is proved by the fact that he gives thanks to God, namely, for the food he eats: "Some enjoin abstinence from foods which God created to be received with thanksgiving" (I Tim 4:3); "The poor shall eat and be filled" (Ps 22:26). Finally in regard to those who look on days in such a way that they abstain every day, he says: He who abstains every day abstains in honor of the Lord. This is clear, because he gives thanks to God, Who gave him the will and virtue to abstain: "Give thanks in all circumstances" (I Th 5:18). But what the Apostle says here about those who abstain every day or cease abstaining should be understood with respect to that time when this was not contrary to the decrees of major authorities or to the common customs of the people of God. 1101. Then when he says, None of us lives to himself, he proves the same thing from the intention of believers. First, he rejects an inordinate intention, saying: I am correct in saying that everyone stands or falls before his master, for none of us lives to himself in his natural or in his supernatural life, about which it says in Heb (2:4): "My just man lives by faith." To himself, i.e., for himself, because that would be to enjoy himself: "Not seeking what is useful for me" (I Cor 10:33); "Not to us, O Lord, not to us give the glory" (Ps 114:9); to himself, i.e., according to his own rule, as those who say: "Let our might be our law of 543 right" (Wis 2:11); to himself, i.e., according to his own judgment: "I do not even judge myself" (I Cor 4:3). And none of us dies to himself, namely, a bodily death or a spiritual death by sinning, or even a spiritual death where9in one dies to his vices, as in baptism, as it says above (6:7): "He who has died is freed from sin." For to himself, i.e., to his own judgment or for himself or by his example: "The death he died he died to sin once for all " (Rom 6:10); and a few verses later: "So you also must consider yourselves dead to sin. 1102. Secondly, he describes the right intention of believers, saying: If we live with our bodily life, we live to the Lord, i.e., to the glory of the Lord; and if we die a bodily death, we die to the Lord, i.e., to the honor of the Lord: "Christ will be magnified in my body whether through death or through life" (Phil 1:20). 1103. Then when he says, so then, he clarifies his proposition by considering the condition of believers. First he concludes from the foregoing the condition of the faithful, namely, that they are not their own but someone else’s. For those who are their own are free men; they live to themselves and die to themselves. Therefore, because it has been stated that the faithful do not live or die to themselves but to the Lord, he concludes: so then, whether live or whether we die, we are the Lord’s, servants, as it were, of Him Who has power over life and death: "You were bought with a price; do not become slaves of men" (I Cor 7:23); "You were bought with a great price" (I Cor 6:20); "We are yours, O David, and with you, O son of Jesse!" (I Chr 12:18). 544 1104. Secondly, he assigns the cause of this condition, saying: For to this end Christ died and lived again, i.e., by His death and resurrection He obtained the right to be Lord of the living, because He rose to begin a new and perpetual life, and of the dead, because by dying He destroyed our death: "He died for all that those who live might live no longer for themselves, but for him who for their sake died and arose (2 Cor 5:15). Thus, therefore, by all the foregoing the Apostle has proved that each one stands or falls before his master, namely, by the fact that believers give thanks to God and that they live and die to the Lord and that in life and in death we are the Lord’s. 1105. Then when he says, Why do you, he presents the third reason, which is based on the future judgment. In regard to this he does three things: first, he suggests that a judgment at present is unnecessary, saying: Why do you pass judgment, i.e., of what use or need is your judgment, on your brother, rashly judging hidden matters not committed to your judgment? Or you, who are judged, why do you despise your brother, regarding as nothing the fact that you are judged by him? "Why does each one despise his brother?" (Mic 2:10). 1106. Secondly, he foretells the future judgment of Christ: As if to say: I am correct in stating why you pass judgment, because you should not fear that anyone will remain unjudged. For we shall all stand before the tribunal of Christ. The tribunal of Christ is so called on account of His judiciary power, as it says in Mt (25:20): "When the Son of man comes in his glory and all the angels with him, then he will sit on the glorious throne." 545 He says that we shall all stand, as if to be judged, both good and evil in regard to reward or punishment: "We must all appear before the judgment sat of Christ, so that each one may receive good or evil according to what he has done in the body" (2 Cor 5:10). But as to the proceedings not all will stand to be judged, but some will sit as judges: "You will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel" (Mt 19:28). 1107. Thirdly, when he says, for it is written, he proves what he had said: first, he appeals to an authority; secondly, he draws the conclusion [v. 12; n. 1112]. 1108. First, therefore, he says: I have stated that all of us will stand before the tribunal of Christ. This is clear from the testimony of Sacred Scripture: for it is written (Is 45:23): As I live, says the Lord, every knee shall bow to me, and every tongue shall give praise to God. Our text has this: "I have sword by myself that to me every knee shall bow and every tongue shall swear." 1109. Three things are stated in these words: first, the oath sometimes used by God to show that what is said is as solid as the unchangeableness of God’s plan and not changeable as things foretold according to lower causes, as prophecies that threaten. Hence it says in Ps 110 (v. 4): "The Lord has sworn and will not change his mind." But men, as the Apostle says in Heb (6:16), "swear by a greater than themselves." But because God has none greater than Himself on which the strength of His truth depends, He swears by Himself. 546 Furthermore, God is life itself and the source of life, as it says in Dt (30:20): "He is your life and the length of your days"; "With thee is the fountain of life" (Ps 36:9). Therefore, the formula of the Lord’s oath is, as I live. As if to say: I swear by the life I uniquely live. 1110. Secondly, the coming subjection of the creature to God is foretold, when it is said: every knee shall bow to me, i.e., to Christ. In this is designated the complete subjection of the rational creature to Christ. For men are wont to signify subjection by bending the knee. Hence it says in Phil (2:11): "At the name of Jesus every knee should bend in heaven and on the earth and under the earth. 1111. Thirdly, he foretells the confession of faith by which all will confess the glory of Christ. Hence he continues: and every tongue shall give praise to God, i.e., will confess that Christ is God, as it says in Phil (2:11): "Every tongue shall confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father." Every tongue can be understood as the expression of the knowledge of men or of angels, as it says in I Cor (13:1): "If I speak in the tongue of men and of angels." This is fulfilled now in this life, not as to each man but as to the classes of each man. From each class of men some are not subjected to Christ and confess Him by faith, but in the future judgment all and each will be subjected to Him: the good voluntarily and the evil unwillingly. Hence, it says in Heb (2:8): "Now in subjecting everything to him, he left nothing outside his control." 1112. Then when he says, so each of us, he draws the conclusion from the foregoing. 547 First, the conclusion intended from what he had just said, saying: Therefore, from the fact that every knee will bend before Christ, each of us shall give an account of himself before God, i.e., before the tribunal of Christ: "On the day of judgment every man shall render an account for every careless word he uttered" (Mt 12:36); "The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a king who wished to settle accounts with his servants" (Mt 18:23). 1113. But it seems that not everyone will give an account of himself, but one for someone else: "Obey your leaders and submit to them. For they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give an account" (Heb 13:17). The answer is that in the very fact that prelates will render an account for others, they will render an account for their own actions, which they6 should have performed for their subjects. For if they have done what their duties demanded, they will not be held accountable, if their subjects perished. But they would be held accountable, if they neglected to do what their office required. Hence it says in Ez (3:18ff): "If I say to the wicked, ‘You shall surely die,’ and you give him no warning, nor speak to warn the wicked from his wicked way, in order to save his life, that wicked man shall die in his iniquity, but his blood I shall require at your hand. But if you warn the wicked and he does not turn from his wickedness, he shall die in his iniquity, but you will have saved your life." 1114. Secondly, he draws the conclusion chiefly intended from the entire preceding part, saying: Then let us no more pass judgment on one another, i.e., with a rash judgment, which is included in the reason given above: "Do not pronounce judgment before the time" (I Cor 4:5).

1115. After forbidding human judgments [n. 1081], the Apostle now forbids putting stumbling blocks before one’s neighbor. First, he presents his proposition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 15; n. 1122]. 1116. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he teaches that stumbling blocks must be avoided, saying: I have said that you should not judge one another, but everyone ought to judge his own actions. And this is what he says: but rather decide never to put a hindrance or scandal in the way of a brother. A scandal, as Jerome says in 549 his commentary on Matthew, means a hindrance or injury which we can call a "striking of the foot." Hence a scandal is an illegal word or deed presenting the occasion of ruin to someone after the manner of a stone against which one strikes his foot and falls. A scandal is more serious than a hindrance, for the latter can be anything which merely retards forward movement; but a scandal, i.e., a striking, seems to exist when someone is disposed for a fall. Therefore, we should not place a hindrance before our brother by doing anything that will draw him from the path of righteousness: "Take the hindrance out of my people’s path" (Is 57:14). Nor should we place a scandal before a brother by doing something that might incline him to sin: "Woe to the man by whom scandal comes" (Mt 18:7). 1117. Secondly, he teaches that what was considered a stumbling block was of its very nature and in itself lawful. In regard to this it should be noted that, as was stated above, there were among the Romans some Jews converted to Christ who distinguished among foods without distinction - this of itself was lawful. Hence he says: I know and am persuaded in the Lord Jesus that nothing is unclean in itself. On this point it should be known, as Jerome says in his commentary on Matthew, that the Jewish people, boasting that they are God’s portion, call unclean the food which all men use, e.g., the flesh of swine, hares and food of that sort. Furthermore, the nations which used such foods were not God’s portion; consequently, such food was unclean. The words nothing is common amount to the same thing as saying "Nothing is unclean." 550 The Apostle says that nothing is unclean, because he knows that it is so according to the nature of things, as he says in I Tim (4:4): Everything created by God is good and nothing is to be rejected, if it is received with thanksgiving." Secondly, he says that he is persuaded in Christ Jesus that in itself nothing is unclean, namely, because foods of their very nature never were unclean, but they were avoided for a time as unclean in keeping with a commandment of the Law as a figure. But Christ removed this by fulfilling all figures. Therefore, the Apostle, relying on his confidence in the Lord Jesus, asserts that nothing is common or unclean of itself: "What God has cleansed, you must not call common" (Ac 10:15). 1118. Thirdly, he shows how this could be unlawful accidentally, inasmuch as it is against the conscience of the eater. Hence he says: It has been stated that nothing is unclean; but it must be understood that if one has an erroneous conscience and thinks that some food is unclean, then for him it is unclean and so it is unlawful for him, as if the food were really unclean: "To the pure all things are pure, but to the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their minds and consciences are corrupted" (*** 1:15). 1119. So it is clear that something licit in itself becomes illicit for one who does it against his conscience, even though his conscience is erroneous. It is reasonable that this be so, for acts are judged according to the will of the performer. But the will is moved by the thing apprehended. Hence the will tends toward what the apprehensive power represents to it, and it is according to this that the action is qualified or specified. Therefore, if a person’s reason judges that something is sinful and the will is drawn to it as something to be done, it is clear that the person has a will to commit a sin. For this reason his external action, which is informed from the will, is a sin. For the same reason, 551 if one thinks that something venially sinful is a mortal sin, if he does it while his conscience is in that state, it is clear that he has chosen to sin mortally; consequently, his action is a mortal sin on account of his choice. But if someone afterwards has an erroneous conscience through which he believes that something lawful he did was a sin, or something venial was mortal, it is not on that account a sin or mortal, because the will and the action are not informed by a succeeding apprehension but by the one preceding the will and the action. 1120. There is no doubt about what we have said, but there can be doubt whether if someone has an erroneous conscience whereby he believes that something which is a mortal sin is necessary for salvation; for example, if he thinks that he is sinning mortally, unless he steals or fornicates, should such a conscience bind him, so that if he acted against it, he would sin mortally. It would seem that he would not be bound. First, because God’s law, which forbids stealing and fornication, bind him more strongly than conscience. Secondly, because this position would put him in a perplexed state, for he would sin by fornicating and by not fornicating. The answer is that an erroneous conscience binds, even in matters per se evil. For conscience, as has been said, binds to such an extent that from the fact that one acts against his conscience, it follows that he has the will to sin. Therefore, if someone believes that not to fornicate is a sin and chooses not to fornicate, he chooses to sin mortally; and so he sins mortally. This also applies to what the Apostle says here. For it is clear that distinguishing among foods as though necessary for salvation was unlawful, because even before the spreading of the Gospel, it was not lawful for the converted Jews 552 to observe the practices of the Law by putting their hope in them, as though they were necessary for salvation, as Augustine said above [n. 1087]. Yet the Apostle says here that if a person’s conscience compels him to distinguish between foods, i.e., regards some food as unclean, and he does not distinguish among them, i.e., by abstaining from them, he sins as though he were eating unclean food. And so an erroneous conscience obliges, even in matters that are per se illicit. The answer to the first objection about the law of God is that the binding force of even an erroneous conscience and that of the law of God are the same. For conscience does not dictate something to be done or avoided, unless it believes that it is against or in accordance with the law of God. For the law is applied to our actions only by means of our conscience. The answer to the second objection is that nothing forbids a person to be perplexed in certain circumstances, although no one is perplexed absolutely. For example, a fornicating priest sins mortally whether he celebrates Mass or does not celebrate, when is obliged by his office. Yet absolutely speaking, he is not perplexed, because he can confess and then celebrate. Similarly, someone can get rid of an erroneous conscience and abstain from sin. 1121. There is still another difficulty. For one is not said to place a stumbling block by doing a good work, even though someone takes the good work as a stumbling block, as Mt (15:12) says that the Pharisees took the words of Jesus as a stumbling block. But not to discriminate among foods is a good work; therefore, it should not be avoided just because someone with a erroneous conscience makes a stumbling block of it. For according to this, Catholics would have to 553 abstain from meat and marriage to prevent heretics from being offended according to their erroneous conscience. The answer is that someone can place a stumbling block before another not only by doing something evil but also by doing something which has the appearance of evil: "Abstain from all appearances of evil" (I Th 5:22). Now something is said to have the appearance of evil in two ways: first, according to the opinion of those cut off from the Church; secondly, according to the opinion of those still tolerated by the Church. But those weak in faith, considering that the practices of the Law should be observed, were still tolerated by the Church before the spread of the Gospel. Therefore, foods forbidden by the Law were not to be eaten, if they were a stumbling block. Heretics, however, are not tolerated by the Church; therefore, this reasoning does not apply to them. 1122. Then when he says, if your brother, he clarifies what he had said: first, that scandals must not be placed before a brother; secondly, how something is common [v. 20b; n. 1132]. 1123. In regard to the first he presents four arguments, the first of which is taken on the part of charity, saying: If y our brother is being injured by the fact that he thinks you are sinning by the food you eat, which he considers unclean, you are no longer walking in love, according to which a person loves his neighbor as himself. So you should avoid saddening him and not prefer food to your brother’s peace of mind: "Love does not seek its own" (I Cor 13:5). 1124. Then when he says, Do not let your food, he presents the second argument taken on the part of Christ’s death. 554 For he seems to put little value on Christ’s death who voids its fruit for the sake of food. Hence he says: Do not let your food, of which you eat all without distinction, cause the ruin of one, i.e., be a stumbling block for whom, i.e., for whose salvation, Christ died: "Christ died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust" (I Pt 3:18). He says that the victim of the stumbling block suffers ruin, because it involves him in sin. For the victim is one who makes a stumbling block the occasion of ruin: "So by your knowledge this weak man is destroyed, the brother for whom Christ died" (I Cor 8:11). 1125. Then when he says, So do not let, he presents the third reason, which is taken on the part of the gifts of spiritual grace. First, he shows what impropriety follows against such gifts from the fact that we place a stumbling block; secondly, he clarifies what he had said [v. 17; n. 1127]; thirdly, he draws a conclusion [v. 19; n. 1130]. 1126. In regard to the first it should be noted that because some ate all foods without distinction in the early Church and thus set an obstacle before the weak, this impropriety followed, namely, that the weak blasphemed the faith of Christ, asserting that it fostered greediness in regard to food, contrary to the commandment of the Law. Therefore, the Apostle says: Although the Lord Jesus declared that nothing is unclean, we should not let our good, i.e., the faith and grace of Christ, though which you have obtained freedom from the ceremonies of the Law, be blasphemed by the weak who declare that it caters to man’s gluttony: "They blaspheme that honorable name by which 555 you are called" (Jas 2:7); concerning this good it says in Ps 73 (v. 6): "For me it is good to be near God." 1127. Then when he says, For the kingdom, he explains what he had said, namely, in what our good consists. First, he shows in what it does not consist, saying: The kingdom of God is not food and drink. Here the kingdom of God means that through which God reigns in us and through which we arrive at His kingdom. Mt (6:10) says of this: "Thy kingdom come" and Mic (4:7): "The Lord will reign over them in Mount Zion." We are joined to God and subjected to Him through our intellect and affections, as it says in Jn (4:24): "God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth." This is why the kingdom of God is considered mainly in things interior to man and not exterior. Hence Lk (17:21) says: "The kingdom of God is within you. But things which are exterior and pertain to the body pertain to the kingdom of God to the extent that through them the interior affections are ordered or disordered in regard to those things in which the kingdom of God mainly consists. Hence, since food and drink pertain to the body, they do not of themselves pertain to the kingdom of God, but only inasmuch as we use them or abstain from them. Hence it says in I Cor (8:8): "Food will not commend us to God. We are no worse off if we do not eat, and no better off if we do." Yet the use of or abstinence from food and drink pertains to the kingdom of God, insofar as a man’s affections are ordered or disordered in regard to them. Hence Augustine says in Gospel Questions [book 2, question 11], and is provided here in the Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1517]: "Wisdom is justified in her children who understand that 556 righteousness does not consist in eating or in abstaining, but in tolerating need with equanimity and in temperance not destroying itself by abundance and by unsuitable ways of eating. It makes no difference," as is said in the Gloss "how, what, or how much one takes, provided he does it according to the habits of the men among whom he lives and for the needs of his person and health; but with how much power and severity of mind he suffers the lack of these, either when he should or of necessity must be deprived of them. 1128. Secondly, he shows in what our good consists, namely, in the kingdom of God, saying: Righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Here righteousness refers to external works, whereby a man renders to each person what is his due and the intention of doing such works, as it says in Mt (6:33): "Seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness." Peace refers to the effect of justice [righteousness]. For peace is particularly disturbed, when one man does not give to another what he owes him. Hence it says in Is (32:17): "Peace is a work of justice." Joy must be referred to the manner in which the works of justice are to be accomplished; for as the Philosopher says in book one of the Ethics, "A man is not just who does not take joy in acts of justice." Hence Ps 100 (v. 2) says: "Serve the Lord with gladness." The cause of this joy is expressed when says: in the Holy Spirit. For it is by the Holy Spirit that the love of God is poured into us, as was said above (5:5). For joy in the Holy Spirit is what charity produces; for example, when one rejoices in the good of God and neighbor. Hence it says in I Cor (13:6): "Charity does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right" and in Gal (5:22): "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace. The three things mentioned here are possessed imperfectly in this life, but perfectly when the saints will possess the kingdom God prepared for them, as it says in 557 Mt (25:34). In that kingdom perfect righteousness will exist without any sin: "All your people are righteous" (Is 60:21). There will be perfect peace without any disquiet or fear: "My people will abide in a peaceful habitation" (Is 32:18). There will be joy there: "They shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away" (Is 35:1). 1129. Then he proves what he had said, namely, that the kingdom of God consists in these things. For the man who seems to belong to the kingdom of God is one who is pleasing to God and approved by holy men. But this happens to the man in whom are found righteousness, peace and joy. Therefore, the kingdom of God consists in them. He says, therefore: It has been stated that the kingdom of God is righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit; therefore, he who thus serves Christ, Who is the king of this kingdom: "He has transferred us into the kingdom of his beloved Son (Col 1:13), so that one who lives in righteousness, joy and peace is pleasing to God, Who is the founder of this kingdom: "There was one who pleased God and was loved by him" (Wis 4:10) and approved by men, i.e., approved by the members of this kingdom: "Who has been tested by it and found perfect" (Sir 31:10). 1130. Then when he says, Let us then, he infers the intended admonition. Inasmuch as the kingdom of God consists in righteousness, peace and spiritual joy, let us then, in order to arrive at the kingdom of God, pursue the path of peace, i.e., strive to accomplish the things through which we conserve the peace of Christians: "Strive for peace and holiness" (Heb 12:14). Let us then pursue what makes for peace and for mutual upbuilding, i.e., things by which we upbuild one another, i.e., by which we preserve what is good and are stimulated to become better: "Strive to excel in building up the Church" (I Cor 14:12). 558 1131. Then when he says, Do not for the sake of food, he presents the fourth argument, which is taken from our reverence for God’s works, to which we owe this reverence in the sense that what God does we should not destroy for some bodily convenience: And this is what he says: Do not for the sake of food, which is used by the body, destroy the work of God. This, of course, does not mean just any work of God. For all the things which serve as man’s food are God’s works, as the produce of the earth and the flesh of animals, which have been granted to man for food, as it says in Gen (1:29; 9:3). It means the work of grace which He works in us in a special way: "God is at work in your, both to will and to work for his good pleasure" (Phil 2:13). Therefore, we should not for the sake of food destroy this work of God in our neighbor, as they seemed to do who disturbed and placed stumbling blocks before the brethren by eating all foods without distinction.

1132. After presenting a reason to show that we should not set a stumbling block before our neighbor by eating all foods indiscriminately [n. 1122], the Apostle now shows how certain foods can be clean and unclean. In regard to this he does two things. First, he states which things are clean of their very nature, saying: Everything, indeed, which can pertain to man’s food is clean, namely, of its very nature, because of its very nature it does not have the power to defile a man’s soul, as it says in Mt (15:11): "Not what goes into the mouth defiles a man"; and in I Tim (4:4): "Everything created by God is good." But certain things were declared unclean under the Law not of their nature but by reason of what they signified, as is clear in Lev (11:2ff). But Christ even removed this uncleanness by fulfilling the figures of the Old Law. Hence it was said to Peter: "What God has cleansed, you must not call common," i.e., unclean (Ac 10:15). Secondly [n. 1133], when he says, but it is wrong, he shows how some food can become unclean for a man, namely, it stains his soul to eat it; and this in two ways: first, when a person by eating all food indiscriminately puts a stumbling block before his neighbor; secondly, when he eats food contrary to his conscience [v. 22b; n. 1138]. 1133. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he shows what is evil in taking food, saying: Although all things are by their nature good, nevertheless, it is wrong for anyone to make others fall by what he eats: "Woe to the world for stumbling blocks" (Mt 18:7). Secondly, he shows what is good in eating foods of this sort, saying: It is good not to eat meat or drink wine, the first of which seems to be the principal food and the second the principal drink. 560 He says that it is good to abstain from these either to tame the desires of the flesh, as it says in Eph (5:18): "Do not get drunk with wine, for in that is debauchery," or even to make a man more apt for contemplating spiritual things: "I have thought to deprive myself of wine, that I might give my mind to wisdom" (Ec 2:3). But this is not what the Apostle intends to say here, but that it is good not to use these, if they are a stumbling block to the brethren. This is apparent from what he says: or do anything that makes your brother stumble. What I say, I say not only about wine and meat, namely, that it is good not to use them, but I say it of any other food; your brother is upset, i.e., disturbed about you, as if you were acting unlawfully. By this his peace is disturbed or he sees a stumbling block, i.e., is tempted to fall into sin; wherefore, his righteousness is injured or is weakened, i.e., begins at least to wonder whether what is done is lawful, so that his spiritual joy is lessened. 1135. But since it is lawful to use these foods, if one must abstain from using them for fear of putting a stumbling block before his neighbor, then by the same token it seems that one should abstain from all lawful things which are not necessary for salvation, as righteousness, peace and spiritual joy are necessary. So it seems that it is not lawful for a man to demand his due for fear of putting a stumbling block before his neighbor. The answer is that if the stumbling block [scandal] proceeds from the weakness or ignorance of those scandalized on account of it, then to avoid this scandal a man should abstain from lawful things, if they are not necessary for salvation. For this is scandal of little ones, which the Lord commands us to avoid: "See that you do not despise one of these little ones" (Mt 18:10). But if scandal of this sort arises from the malice of those 561 scandalized, such scandal is Pharisaical and the Lord taught that it should be ignored. Hence, to avoid scandal of this sort, it is not necessary to abstain from lawful things. But yet in regard to scandal of little ones, it should be noted that to avoid it, a person is bound to postpone the use of lawful things, until this scandal can be removed by explaining one’s conduct. But if the scandal still remains after such an explanation, then it would seem to proceed not from ignorance or from weakness but from malice, so that it will now be Pharisaical scandal. 1136. Thirdly, he rejects an excuse. For someone might say: Although my neighbor may be scandalized at my eating all foods indiscriminately, yet to profess my faith, which tells me that it is lawful, I will use food indiscriminately. But the Apostle rejects this reasoning, saying: You, who would use all foods indiscriminately, have the faith, through which it is clear that it is lawful to use these foods. This faith is good and praiseworthy, but keep it between you and God, Whom such faith pleases: "God is well pleased with faith and meekness" (Sir 18:14). As if to say: It is not fitting to manifest your faith by an outward work, when this becomes a stumbling block to your neighbor. 1137. But this seems to be contradicted by something he said above (10:10): "Man believes with his heart and so is justified; and he confesses with his lips and so is saved." Therefore, it does not seem to be enough to keep the faith in your heart between yourself and God, but it should be manifested by confessing it before one’s neighbor. The answer is that among the matters of faith some have not been perfectly manifested by the Church, as in the early Church it had not been perfectly declared to men that Jewish converts were not bound to observe the practices of the Law, and as in 562 37 Cf. Augustine, De libero Arbitrio, book 3, ch. 21. the time of Augustine the Church had not yet declared that the soul was not transferred from the parent.37 Hence, in cases of this kind it is enough for a man to keep his faith between himself and God. Nor should he manifest his faith, if it scandalizes his neighbor, except perhaps among those who have to decide about the faith. But certain things of faith have already been determined by the Church. In such matters it is not enough to keep your faith between yourself and God, but one should confess it before his neighbor, no matter what scandal might arise, because doctrinal truth must not be set aside on account of scandal, just as Christ did not set aside the truth of His teaching just because the Pharisees were scandalized, as it says in Mt (15:12ff). It should also be noted that although in such matters a person should manifest his faith by oral confession, he is not required to manifest it by performing the outward work. Thus, if someone hold by faith that the use of marriage is licit, he is not required as a manifestation of his faith to use. It. And so it is also not required of those who have correct faith, that they manifest their faith by the use of foods. For they could manifest it by word. 1138. Then when he says, happy is he, he shows how the use of foods becomes unclean for certain persons from the fact that it is against their conscience. In regard to this he does three things [nn. 1139, 1140]: first, he shows what is good in this matter, in order, namely, that a person not have remorse of conscience from something he does not do. Hence, he says: Happy is he who has no reason to judge himself, i.e., whose conscience neither chides nor condemns him for what he approves to be done. 563 This, of course, supposes that he approves with right faith that which is to be done. But if he uses a false opinion in approving something to be done, say if he deems it a service to God to kill Christ’s disciples, as it says in Jn (16:2), he is not excused just because he does not judge himself in this matter. Indeed, he would be happier if his conscience were to rebuke him on this point, because he would thereby have been restrained more from sin. But we should understand that the Apostle is speaking here of lawful things. For it pertains to man’s glory that his conscience not rebuke him: "Our glory is this, the testimony of our conscience" (I Cor 1:12); "My heart does not reproach me for any of my days" (Jb 27:6). 1139. Secondly, he shows what is evil in this matter, namely, that one acts against his conscience. Hence he says: But he who has doubts, i.e., has the false opinion that he must discriminate among foods, if he eats, namely, food which he regards as unlawful, is condemned, because so far as in him lies, he has the will to do what is unlawful; and so, "because he sinned, he is self-condemned" (*** 3:110. 1140. Thirdly, he assigns the cause of what he had said, saying: because he does not act from faith; therefore, he is condemned. Here faith can be taken in two ways: in one way of faith as a virtue; in another way, so that conscience is called faith. These two meanings differ only as particular and universal. For what we hold by faith universally, for example, that the use of foods is lawful or unlawful, conscience applies to a deed performed or to be performed. It is said, therefore, that he who eats and distinguishes is condemned, because this is not from faith but against faith, i.e., against a truth of faith and against the conscience of the eater: "Without faith it is impossible to please God" (Heb 11:6). That this is a 564 sufficient reason for condemnation is shown when he says: Whatever does not proceed from faith is sin. From this it seems that, as a Gloss says, "The entire life of unbelievers is sin," just as the entire life of believers is meritorious, inasmuch as it is directed to the glory of God, as it says in I Cor (10:31): "Whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God." 1141. But it should be noted that the believer’s relation to good differs from the unbeliever’s relation to evil. For there is nothing of condemnation in a person who has living faith, as was said above (8:1). But in the unbeliever along with his unbelief is the good of his nature. Therefore, when an unbeliever does something good from the dictate of reason and does not refer it to an evil end, he does not sin. However, his deed is not meritorious, because it was not enlivened by grace. This is what a Gloss says: "Nothing is good without the supreme good, i.e., no good is meritorious without God’s grace, and where knowledge of eternal life and unchangeable truth is lacking, which knowledge comes by faith, virtue in the best behavior is false, inasmuch as it is not referred to the end of eternal happiness. But when an unbeliever does something from the fact that he is an unbeliever, it is clear that he sins." Hence when a Gloss says: "Every deed which is not from faith is a sin," it must be understood in the following way: Everything against faith or against conscience is a sin, and if it is seems of its nature to be good, as when a pagan in honor of his gods preserves virginity or gives an alms, he sins by this very fact: "To the corrupt and unbelieving nothing is pure; their very minds and consciences are corrupted" (*** 1:15).

1142. The Apostle taught above that the stronger should avoid scandalizing the weak [n. 1081]; here he teaches that the stronger should bear with the failings of the weak. In regard to this he does two things: first, he proposes an admonition; secondly, he clarifies it [v. 2; 1143]. This admonition contains two parts: the first pertains to external behavior. Hence he says: Not only should we avoid scandalizing the weak, but we who are stronger in faith ought to bear with the failings of the weak. For as in a material edifice certain stronger material is selected to support the edifice’s entire weight, upon which weaker material is set, as are the foundation and pillars, so in the spiritual edifice of the Church stronger men are not only chosen but made stronger to support the weight of the others. Hence it says in Ps 75 (v. 4): "I have strengthened its pillars" and in Gal (6:2): "Bear one another’s burdens." But the stronger support the failings of the weak, when they endure the shortcomings of the weak patiently and, so far as they can, try to help them. The second pertains to the internal intention. Hence it is said: And we should not please ourselves, i.e., always desire the fulfillment of what pleases us, but we should 567 condescend to the wills of others, so as to do what pleases them and is useful to them: "Just as I try to please all men in everything I do" (I Cor 10:33). 1143. Then when he says, let each of us, he clarifies his admonition: first, in regard to the second part; secondly, in regard to the first [v. 7; 1150]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he explains what he had said; secondly, he presents a reason [v. 3; 1145]. 1144. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that we should not please ourselves, precisely because each of us who are stronger, ought to please our weak neighbor, i.e., condescend to him in matters that please him, but not in matters that are evil, as some request in Is (30:10): "Speak to us smooth things." Hence he adds: for his good. Similarly, we should not have the intention of pleasing men for the sake of human favor or glory, since it says in Ps 53 (v. 5): "god will scatter the bones of those who please men," but for the honor of God and the benefit of our neighbor. Hence he adds: to edify him, i.e., because we condescend to their will, they are strengthened in the faith and love of Christ: "Let us pursue what makes for peace and mutual upbuilding" (Rom 14:19). 1145. Then when he says, For Christ, he assigns the reason for what he had said and uses the example of Christ: first, he mentions the example of Christ: secondly, he shows that we should imitate this example [v. 4; 1148]; 568 thirdly, he adds a prayer so that we can fulfill it [v. 5; n. 1149]. 1146. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he presents the example, saying: It has been stated that we should not please ourselves, i.e., according to our own private will; for Christ, Who is our head, did not please himself, when he chose to suffer for our salvation and do things contrary to His own will, namely, His natural human will, in order to accomplish the divine will, which was common to Him and the Father: "Not my will but thine be done" (Mt 26:42). 1147. Secondly, he appeals to an authority, saying: But as it is written in a Psalm in the person of Christ speaking to the Father: O Father, the reproaches of those, i.e., the Jews, who reproached thee, i.e., blasphemed you by their evil works and by contradicting the truth of your doctrine, has fallen on me, because they willed to oppress me, because I instructed them about your will and rebuked their evil deeds: "They have hated both me and my Father" (Jn 15:24). This can also refer to the sins of the whole human race, because all sins in a way reproach God, inasmuch as God’s aw is scorned by them: "Thy have forsaken the Lord, they have blasphemed the hold One of Israel" (Is 14:4). Thus, therefore, the reproaches of those reproaching God fell on Christ, inasmuch as He died for the sins of all: "The Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all" (Is. 1:4); "He bore our sins in his body on the tree" (I Pt 2:24). 1148. Then when he says, For whatever was written, he shows that we must imitate this example of Christ, saying: For whatever was written in Sacred Scripture about Christ or His members was written for our instruction. There was no need to write 569 this except for our instruction: "All scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for correction and for training in righteousness" (2 Tim 3:16). But what is contained in Scripture for our instruction is show when he says: that by patience and the consolation of the scriptures, i.e., which the Scriptures contain. For in Sacred Scripture is contained the patience of the saints in enduring evils: "You have heard of the patience of Job" (Jas 5:11). In them is also contained consolation, which God gave them, as it says in Ps 94 (v. 19): "When the cares of my heart are many, thy consolations cheer my soul." Hence it also says in I Pet (1:11): "predicting the sufferings of Christ," which pertains to patience, "and the subsequent glory," which pertains to consolation. What the fruit of this doctrine will be for us he indicates when he says: that we might have hope. For by the instruction from Sacred Scripture that those who suffered tribulations patiently for God were divinely consoled, we receive the hope that we ourselves will be consoled, if we have been patient in them: "If he should slay me, I will hope in him" (Jb 13:15). 1149. Then when he says, May the God of patience, because it seemed exceedingly difficult for a mere man to be able to imitate the example of Christ, as it says in Ec (2:12): "What is man that he should be able to follow the king, his maker?" he makes use of a prayer, saying: May the God of patience, i.e., the giver, Ps 71 (v. 5): "You are my patience," and of encouragement, i.e., who bestows spiritual consolation: 2 Cor (1:3): "The Father of mercies and God of all comfort, grant you to live in such harmony with one another, i.e., that you agree with one another: "Agree with one another, live in peace" (2 Cor 13:11), not consenting in sin, but in accord with Christ 570 Jesus, of Whom it is said: "He is our peace, who has made us both one" (Eph 2:14). That, by the fact that you agree on the same things, together you may with one voice, i.e., with one confession of the voice coming from unity of faith, I Cor (1:10): "I appeal that all of you agree," glorify the God, Creator of all things, and Father of Jesus Christ, through Whom He adopted us as His sons: "Those who honor me I will honor" (I Sam 2:30); "If I am a father, where is my honor?" (Mal 1:6). 1150. Then when he says, Therefore, welcome one another, he clarifies the first part of the admonition in which he had said that the stronger should bear with the failings of the weak. In regard to this he does two things: first, he resumes the admonition; secondly, he presents a reason from the example of Christ [v. 7b; n. 1152]; thirdly, he adds a reason [v. 13; n. 1162]. 1151. First, therefore, he says: Therefore, i.e., because the things that have been written are directed to our instruction, namely, the examples of Christ and the other saints, welcome one another in the love of charity, namely, so that one bears things that pertain to another, just as he would like to be helped as far as charity permits, and so that one may bear with another to help and enable him to advance: "Welcome the man who is weak in faith" (Rom 14:1). 1152. Then when he says, as Christ, he assigns a reason from the example of Christ. First, he presents the example, saying: as Christ welcomed you, i.e., took you under His care and protection: "Behold, my servant whom I uphold" (Is 42:1); "He has 571 helped Israel, his servant, in remembrance of his mercy" (Lk 1:54). And this for the glory of God, to Whom he referred all things: "I honor my Father and you dishonor me" (Jn 8:49). From this we are given to understand that we should bear up on another in things pertaining to the honor of God. 1153. Secondly, when he says, For I tell, he clarifies what he had said: first, with respect to the Jews; secondly with respect to the Gentiles [v. 9; n. 1155]. 1154. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that Christ welcomed you who are assembled in the unity of faith composed of Jews and Gentiles. And this is clear with respect to both: I tell you, therefore, that Christ became a servant to the circumcised, for He is the author of everyone’s faith, as it says in Heb (12:2): "Looking to Jesus, the author and perfector of our faith." But He showed Himself in person only to the Jews, as it says in Mt (15:24): "I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel"; and in Is (42:2): "His voice will not be heard outside." And this to show God’s truthfulness, i.e., that the truth of God’s promise may be acknowledged: "God is truthful" (Rom 3:4). Hence he continues: in order to confirm the promises given to the patriarchs: "He has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his servant David; as he spoke from the mouth of his holy prophets" (Lk 1:69); "For all the promises of God find their Yes in him" (2 Cor 1:20). 1155. Then when he says, and in order that, he shows that even the Gentiles were accepted by Christ: first, he states his proposition; 572 secondly, he confirms it with an authority [v. 9b; 1158]. 1156. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that Christ accepted the Jews in order that the promises made to the patriarchs be fulfilled. But the promises were not made to the Gentiles. Hence, this does not apply to the Gentiles, because they were accepted on account of mercy. And this is what he says: that the Gentiles should glorify God for the mercy extended to them by Christ; because, although He did not preach to them in person, He sent them His disciples, who exercised their ministry among them as He had done among the Jews: "Go, therefore, and teach all nations" (Mt 28:19); "The earth is full of the Lord’s mercy" (Ps 33:5); "His mercy is on those who fear him from generation to generation" (Lk 1:50). 1157. Thus, the Apostle attributes the conversion of the Jews to God’s truth but that of the Gentiles to His mercy. But Ps 25 (v. 10) says: "All the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth," which seems to contradict this. The answer is that in ascribing the call of the Jews to God’s truth He does not exclude mercy, because the Apostle himself, who was born of the Jews, says: "I received mercy" (I Tim 1:13). It was also an act of mercy that God made the promises to the patriarchs about the salvation of their descendants. Similarly, in ascribing the call of the Gentiles to God’s mercy He does not exclude God’s truth entirely, because it also pertained to divine truth that He should fulfill His intention concerning the salvation of the Gentiles. Of this intention the Apostle says in Eph (3:9): "It was a mystery hidden for ages in God." But one form of truth, namely, the fulfillment of promises, is considered in the call of the Jews, that is not considered in the call of the Gentiles, to whom the promises were not made. 573 1158. Then when he says, As it is written, he confirms with an authority what he had said about he conversion of the Gentiles. For although the call had not been promised to the Gentiles, it was not unplanned but was foretold by the predictions of the prophets. He adduces four authorities, the first of which contains Christ’s thanksgiving to the "Father for the conversion of the Gentiles achieved by Him. Hence he says: As it is written, (Ps 18), Thou didst make me the head of the gentiles (v. 43); thou didst exalt me above my adversaries (v. 48). O, God the Father, I, Christ, will praise you with thanksgiving among the Gentiles, for the conversion of the Gentiles accomplished through me and I will sing with new exaltation of mind to your name, which has been manifested to them, as it says in Jn (17:6): "I have manifested they name to the men whom thou gavest me." Or in another way: I will praise you among the Gentiles, i.e., I will make the Gentiles confess to you with a confession of faith: "Let the peoples praise thee, O God, let all the peoples praise thee" (Ps 67:5) and I will sing to your name, i.e., I will make the Gentiles sing to you a song which consists in the exultation of a renewed spirit: "O, sing to the Lord a new song; sing to the Lord, all the earth" (Ps 96:1). 1159. The second authority contains the coalescence of Gentiles and Jews. Hence, he says: And again it is said: "O Gentiles, once alienated from the commonwealth of Israel" (Eph 2:12); Rejoice, O Gentiles, with his people, i.e., adopt a common joy together with the Jews, who were once His people: "They rejoice before thee as with joy at the harvest" (Is 9:3); "There shall be one flock and one shepherd" (Jn 10:16). 574 1160. The third authority contains the devotion of the Gentiles to God. Hence he adds: And again it is written in Ps 117 (v. 4): Praise the Lord, all Gentiles, i.e., confess His goodness: "From the rising of the sun to its setting the name of the Lord is to be praised" (Ps 113:3); and let all the peoples, not only the Jewish people, praise him, i.e., confess His greatness, i.e., that His greatness exceeds all praise: "When you praise the Lord, exalt him as much as you can; for he will surpass even that" (Si 43:30); "From the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the Gentiles" (Mal 1:11). 1161. The fourth authority contains the reverence of the Gentiles toward Christ. Hence he continues: And again Isaiah says (11:10) ‘The root of Jesse shall come.’ Here he foretells the origin of Jesus, that He will be born of the seed of Jesse. For Jesse was David’s father. Therefore he says: The root of Jesse will come, from whose seed Christ will be born: "In that day the root of Jesse shall stand as an ensign to the people" (Is 11:10). Or Christ will be the root of Jesse, because although He came from Jesse according to bodily origin, yet it was His power that sustained him and gave him grace: "It is not you that support the root, but the root that supports you" (Rom 11:18). Then he touches on Christ’s office, adding: He who rises with such excellent grace that He is able to rule the Gentiles by leading them to divine worship, which no one had been able to do previously: "I will make the Gentiles your heritage. You shall rule them with a rod of iron" (Ps 2:8). Finally, he mentions the devotion of the Gentiles to Christ, saying: In him shall the Gentiles hope, i.e., to obtain through Him the inheritance of heavenly glory: "We have been born anew to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead" (I Pt 1:3). 575 1162. Then when he says, May the Lord of hope, he adds a prayer, saying: It has been stated that the Gentiles will hope in Christ, the God of hope, i.e., who pours this hope in us: "My hope, O Lord (Ps 71:5). Or the God of hope, i.e., the one to hope in, may he fill you with all you, i.e., spiritual, which is concerned with God: "The joy of the Lord is your strength" (Neh 8:10) and peace, through which a man is at peace in himself and with God and his neighbor: "Great peace have they who love your law" (Ps 119:165) in believing. As if to say: So that along with believing you may have peace and joy, which are effects of charity, as it says in Gal (5:22): "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace." Hence it is clear that he wishes them to have from God, the giver of hope, not only faith but charity, through which faith works, as it says in Gal (5:6) lest their faith be unformed and dead: "Faith without works is dead" (Jas 2:26). So that by the fullness of these virtues you may abound, by progressing from good to better, not only in hope but also in the power of the Holy Spirit, i.e., in charity, which is poured forth in your hearts by the Holy Spirit, as was said above (5:5); "God is able to provide you with every grace in abundance" (2 Cor 7:8).

1163. After instructing the Romans with general admonitions, the Apostle now begins to write certain familiar matters to them. First, matters pertaining to himself; secondly, matters pertaining to others, in chapter 16 [n. 1193]. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he excuses his presumption in instructing and correcting them; secondly, he excuses his tardiness in not visiting them [v. 22; n. 1178]; thirdly, he seeks the favor of their prayers [v. 30; n. 1188]. In regard to the first he does two things: 577 first, he excludes a wrong interpretation of the reason for instructing and correcting them; secondly, he assigns the true cause [v. 15; n. 1165]. 1164. In regard to the first it should be noted that someone could believe that the Apostle wrote to the Romans, because he thought there was no one there who could instruct and correct them. But he excludes this, saying: I myself am satisfied, my brethren, by things I have heard about you that you are capable of admonishing those among you who need admonishing. Two things are required of one who would admonish properly: first, that he admonish not from anger or hatred but from love, as it says in Ps 141 (v. 5): "Let a good man rebuke me in kindness," and in Gal (6:1): "you who are spiritual should restore him in a spirit of gentleness." As to this he says: because you yourselves are full of goodness: "Fill your hands with burning coals from between the cherubim," i.e., with the fire of charity (Ez 10:2). Secondly, knowledge of the truth is required, because some have zeal for God in correcting, but it is not enlightened, as he said above (10:2). That is why he adds: filled with all knowledge, i.e., human and divine, of the Old Law and of the New: "In every way your were enriched with all speech and all knowledge" (I Cor 1:5). From this he concludes: so that you may be able on account of the love and knowledge, fittingly to instruct one another. For because "we all offend in many ways" (Jas 3:2), it is fitting that we admonish one another, as it says in Si (17:14): "He gave commandment to each of them concerning his neighbor." 578 1165. Then when he says, But on some points, he gives the true cause why he had admonished and corrected them. In regard to this he does two things: first, he shows that this belongs to the authority committed to him by his apostolate; secondly, how he used this power [v. 17; n. 1168]. 1166. He says, therefore: But very boldly, i.e., securely, I have written to you by attacking your errors and shortcomings, which of course could be ascribed to bold presumption, inasmuch as I did not fear your displeasure: "He goes out boldly to meet the weapons" (Jb 39:21). But this presumption is excused for three reasons: first, on account of the condition of those to whom he wrote, because even though among the Romans there were some to whom such rebukes seemed bold and presumptuous, there were others who needed a sharp rebuke on account of their insolent disposition: "Rebuke them sharply" (*** 1:13). And this is what he says: in part. As if to say: my writing does not seem to be bold to all of you but only to a part of you. Or it can be understood as meaning, on some points, on which he rebukes them. But it can also mean some part of the Church, i.e., which is with me. Secondly, the boldness is excused because of the Apostle’s intention. For he was not writing to them as though he regarded them as ignorant, but in order to jog their memories. And this is what he adds: by way of reminder, as though they had forgotten things they once knew: "Recall the former days when, after you were enlightened, you endured a hard struggle with sufferings" (Heb 10:32). 579 Thirdly, he is excused because of his apostolic authority which required this. Hence, he adds: because of the grace of the apostolate committed to me: "By the grace of God I am what I am" (I Cor 15:10). 1167. First, he describes the author of this grace when he says: which was given me by God. As if to say: not by men: "Paul an apostle, not from men nor through men" (Gal 1:1). Secondly, he specified that grace when he says: to be a minister of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, i.e., to serve God in the conversion of the Gentiles, i.e., to serve God in the conversion of the Gentiles: "One should regard us as ministers of Christ" (I Cor 4:11); "Inasmuch as I am a minister of Christ, I will honor my ministry" (Rom 11:13). Thirdly, he shows the function of this grace when he says: sanctifying the gospel of God, i.e., showing that it is holy by the word of truth and the work of a good life and of miracles: "In the word of truth, the gospel which has come to you, as indeed in the whole world, is bearing fruit and growing" (Col 1:6); "All the words of my mouth are righteous" (Pr 8:8). Fourthly, he presents the end of this grace when he says: so that the offering of the Gentiles may be made, i.e., the nations converted by my ministry, in which he offered, as it were, a sacrifice and oblation to God, as it says in Phil (2:17): "Even if I am to be poured as a libation upon the sacrificial offering of your faith, I am glad and rejoice with you all." May be made acceptable, namely, to God through a right intention: "Then wilt thou delight in right sacrifices, oblations and holocausts" (Ps 51:20) - and sanctified by the Holy Spirit, i.e., by charity and the other gifts of the Holy Spirit: "you 580 were sanctified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God" (I Cor 6:11). 1168. Then when he says, in Christ Jesus, he shows how he used his apostolic authority. First, he mentions the fruit it produced; secondly, the greatness of this fruit [v. 19b; n. 1172]; thirdly, he shows the difficulty [v. 20; n. 1173]. 1169. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he gives glory to God for the fruit he produced, saying: Therefore, because I have received such a grace and have carefully executed that for which it had been given tome, I have glory, i.e., merit worthy of glory, as a faithful minister: "I would rather die than have anyone deprive me of my ground for boasting" (I Cor 9:15). But I do not attribute this glory chiefly to myself; rather I have it in Christ Jesus, i.e., through Christ Jesus, by Whose power I was able to bring forth fruit: "Without me you can do nothing" (Jn 15:5). And because all things were handed over to Him by the Father, as it says in Mt (11:27), the Father abiding in Him also does the works (Jn 14:10). Therefore, he finally refers this glory to the Father, saying: to God, namely, the Father: "Not to us, O Lord, not to us, but to thy name give glory" (Ps 115:1). Then he assigns the reason for what he had said, saying: For I will not venture to speak of anything except what Christ has wrought through me. As if to say: I will not speak about the fruit produced through me, if it was not produced by me. Otherwise, I would have no glory with God, even if with men. What I do relate are things not as 581 accomplished chiefly through me, but as done by Christ though me: "O Lord, thou hast wrought for us all our works" (Is 27:12). 1170. Secondly, he mentions the fruit itself, saying: to win obedience from the Gentiles. As if to say: My glory is this, that I have made the Gentiles obey the faith: "To bring bout the obedience of faith among all the nations" (Rom 1:5); "As soon as they heard of me they obeyed me" (Ps 18:44). 1171. Thirdly, he shows how he had brought the Gentiles to this obedience. But because he had said above (10:10): "Faith comes from hearing, and hearing through the word of Christ," he now says: by word, i.e., by the word of preaching the faith. But the arguments favoring the faith preached are the good life of the preachers; in regard to this he says: and by deed, as though I brought you to the faith through right deeds: "That they may see your good works" (Mt 5:16); and miraculous works, by which God bears witness to the doctrine preached, as it says in Mk (16:20): "the Lord worked with them and confirmed the message by the signs that attended it." Hence he adds: by the power of signs, i.e., of minor miracles, such as healing the sick, and wonders i.e., major miracles, which portend or manifest something great from their grandeur. But all this would be insufficient, unless the Holy Spirit stirred the hears of their hearers to believe. Hence, it says in Act (10:44) that while Peter was speaking the words of faith, the Holy Spirit fell on all who hard the word. Therefore, he adds: by the power of the Holy Spirit: "While God also bore witness by signs and wonders and by gifts of the Holy Spirit distributed according to his own will" (Heb 2:4). 1172. Then when he says, so that from Jerusalem, he shows the magnitude of the fruit by the multitude of places in which he preached, saying: So that beginning from 582 Jerusalem, where at the commencement of his conversion he preached in the Jewish synagogues, as it says in Ac (9:28). Thus, he fulfilled the word in Is (2:30): "Out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the law from Jerusalem," as far as Illyricum, which is on the Adriatic Sea across from Italy, I have fully preached the gospel of Christ, i.e., I filled all those places with the preaching of the Gospel. But lest anyone suppose that he followed a straight path from Jerusalem to Illyricum to preach the gospel, he adds: from Jerusalem as far round as Illyricum, namely, because he preached to the Gentiles in every direction around him and converted them to the faith: "Who has cleft a channel for the torrents of rain? (Jb 38:25). 1173. Then when he says, thus making, he shows how difficult it is to produce this fruit, for it is difficult to convert those entirely ignorant to the faith. First, therefore, he mentions the difficulty, saying: thus making it my ambition to preach the Gospel, not, indeed, where Christ has already been named, i.e., not among those who had heard the name of Christ: "People whom I had not known served me" (Ps 18:43); "Behold, you shall call nations that you know not, and nations that knew you not shall run to you" (Is 55:5). 1174. Then he gives the reason, saying: lest I build on another man’s foundation. Another man’s foundation can be interpreted in two ways: in one way heretical doctrine, which is alien to the foundation of the true faith: in this sense the word, lest, is taken causally. For the Apostle willed to preach to those who had not heard the name of Christ with the intention, because if his hearers had heard the teachings of false apostles, it would have been more difficult to lead them back to the truth. Hence, it says in Mt (7:26): "The man is foolish who builds his house on sand." 583 In another way, another’s foundation can mean the doctrine of the true faith preached by others. Then the word, lest, is taken in a consecutive sense. For the Apostle did not avoid preaching to those to whom others had preached; thus he preached to the Romans, whom Peter had previously instructed. But when he preached to those who had heard nothing about Christ, the result was that he was not building on another’s foundation, but he himself laid the first foundation of the faith: "As a wise architect, I laid a foundation" (I Cor 3:10). 1175. Secondly, he cites an authority for what he had said, saying: But as it is written (Is 52:15): They shall see who have never been told of him and they shall understand who have never heard of him. In these words the prophet seems to predict that the Gentiles will arrive at a more excellent way of knowing God than the Jews, who knew Him before. 1176. First, therefore, he shows its excellence with respect to the knowledge’s cause which is twofold, namely, the words heard and the things seen. For these two senses are capable of discipline. The Jews, therefore, arrived at a knowledge of Christ’s mysteries by words announced to them by the prophets: "The prophets who prophesied of the grace that was to be yours searched and inquired about this salvation; they inquired what person or time was indicated by the spirit of Christ within them when predicting the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory" (I Pt 1:10). But the Gentiles see such mysteries of Christ really fulfilled; hence, he adds: Because the Gentiles to whom nothing had been announced by the prophets concerning him, i.e., concerning Christ, as it had been announced to the Jews, will see the things 584 now fulfilled: "Many prophets and kings desired to see what you see and did not see it" (Lk 10:24). 1177. Secondly, he shows its excellence in regard to the manner of knowing, because the Jews had only heard the announcements of the prophets: "We have heard tidings from God and a message has been sent among the nations" (Ob 1:1). But the Gentiles obtained understanding from seeing. Hence, it is stated: and they, namely, the Gentiles, who previously had not heard about the Christ foretold by the prophets, shall understand, namely, the truth of the faith: "And now, O kings, understand" (Ps 2:10).

1178. After excusing himself for the presumption which could have been ascribed to him for instructing and correcting the Romans [n. 1163], the Apostle now explains why he has postponed visiting them. In regard to this he does three things: first, he mentions a past hindrance; secondly, his intention to visit [v. 23; n. 1180]; thirdly, he promises some fruit from his visit [v. 29; n. 1187]. 1179. First, therefore, he says: It has been stated that I have preached the Gospel in many places in which the name of Christ had not been known. This is the reason why up to now I have so often been hindered by such an occupation from coming to you. 586 This hindrance has continued until now; hence he adds: and am prevented up to the present moment. This can refer to the vast number of occupations he had had in other places or even to divine providence, through which the Apostle was prevented from visiting them and also directed toward the salvation of others: "They went through the region of Phrygia and Galatia, having been forbidden by the Holy Spirit to speak the word in Asia" (Ac 16:6). Hence above (1:13) he had said: "I often intended to come to you, but thus far have been prevented." And this is what is said in Jb (37:12) about the clouds, by which preachers are signified: "They turn round and round by his guidance, to accomplish all that he commands them." 1180. Then when he says, but now, he clarifies his intention to visit them: first, he promises to visit them; secondly, he tells why he must delay [v. 25; n. 1183]; thirdly, he mentions the goal of his visit [v. 28; n. 1186]. 1181. First, therefore, he says: Until now I have been prevented, but now since I no longer have any room for work, i.e., any need to remain in these regions, in which the faith was established by me, and since I have longed for many years to come to you, as he said above (1:11): "I long to see you that I may impart to you some spiritual gift." As I go to Spain—whither he planned to go in order to lay the foundations of the faith even in such a faraway place: "I will give you as a light to the nations that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth" (Is 49:6) -- hope to see you in passing. Thus, he gives them to understand that he wasn’t planning to go to them principally, because he considered that they had been sufficiently instructed by the teaching of Peter, who was the first apostle to preach to the Romans. 587 38 Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, book 1, chapter 4. And because the Romans then held dominion over the entire west, he hoped with their help and guidance to set out for Spain; hence, he adds: and to be sped on my journey there by you. Yet he intended to spend some time with them, because he adds: if I shall have enjoyed you, i.e., been consoled, as he said in (1:12): "that we may be mutually encouraged." And this in part, i.e., a part of time, because he planned to be consoled with them for a time. 1182. But against this is what Augustine says in his book On Christian Doctrine, that only those things should be enjoyed that make us blessed, namely the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.38 Therefore it is unfitting for the Apostle to say that he will enjoy the Romans. The answer is that, as Augustine says in the same place, a man should not be enjoyed in himself but in God, in line with the letter to Philemon (v. 20): "Yes, brother, I will enjoy you in the Lord," which means to delight in a man on account of God. And this is how we should understand what is said here, if I shall have enjoyed, namely in God. Or in part can refer to the good, whom he could enjoy in God. For the other part, namely, the wicked, he could not enjoy but could grieve over, as it says in 2 Cor (12:21): "Lest when I come God may humble me before you and I may have to mourn over many of those who sinned before." 1183. Then when he says, At present, however, he tells why he must postpone his visit. 588 In regard to this he does three things: first, he gives the reason, saying: At present, however, I am setting out, i.e., I am not coming to you at once, because I am setting out for Jerusalem to minister to the saints. In this regard what is written in Ac (4:34ff) should be noted, namely, that the Jews converted to the faith at the very beginning sold their possessions and lived in common from the revenue which, when it was exhausted and a great famine was imminent (Ac 11:27), the disciples, i.e., Christians, from different parts of the world, according to the amount each had, proposed to send help to the brethren residing in Judea. This they did, sending it to the elders by the hands of Barnabas and Paul. Therefore, the alms which the faithful brought to Jerusalem he calls ministering to the saints: "When I arrive, I will send those whom you accredit by letter to carry your gift to Jerusalem. If it seems advisable that I should go also, they will accompany me" (I Cor 16:3). 1184. Secondly, he explains what he had said about the ministry to the saints, saying: For Macedonia and Achaia, i.e., the faithful from both regions converted by him, have been pleased to make a collection, i.e., to collect something, for the poor of Christ, i.e., fore the use of the poor who are among the saints: "Give to the godly man, but do not help the sinner" (Sir 12:4), who are in Jerusalem living in poverty: "It is superfluous for me to write to about the suffering of the saints. For I know about your readiness, of which I boast about you to the people of Macedonia: (2 Cor 9:1). 1185. Thirdly, he assigns the reasons, the first of which is good pleasure; hence he says: For they were pleased to do it: Each must do as he has made up his mind, not reluctantly or under compulsion" (2 Cor 9:7). 589 The second cause is debt; hence he adds: and indeed they are in debt to them: "Pay all of them their due" (Rom 13:7). He assigns the reason for the debt, saying: for if the Gentiles have come to share in their spiritual blessings, i.e., of the Jews, namely, the blessings of divine knowledge and of the promises and of grace, as he says above (9:4): "To them belong the sonship and the glory" and in (11:17): "You were grafted in their place to share the richness of the olive tree." They were also made partakers of their spiritual blessings, because the Jews had sent them preachers. They ought also to be of service to them in material blessings: "In dividing by lot, give and take" (Si 14:15); "Take a psalm," i.e., spiritual things, "and give the timbrel," i.e., temporal things (Ps 81:2). From this is taken the argument that expenses are owed not only to those who preach but also to those who send preachers. 1186. Then when he says, when, therefore, he mentions the place from which he will come to them, saying: When, therefore, I have completed this, namely, ministering to the saints, and have delivered to them this fruit, i.e., the alms of the Gentiles, which is a fruit of their conversion: "Israel is an abundant vine that yields its fruit" (Hos 10:1); I shall go on by way of you to Spain. But the Apostle seems to be saying something false here; for there is no record of his ever being in Spain. For he had been arrested in Jerusalem and taken to Rome in chains, as it says in Ac (c. 28), where he was killed along with Peter. Some, therefore, say that as it says in Ac (28:16): "and when we come to Rome, Paul was allowed to stay by himself with the soldier that guarded him," and later it says 590 39 Part 2, case 22, question 2, can. 5. that he remained for two whole years in his dwelling; during that time, they say, he went to Spain. But because this is not certain, it can be said better that the Apostle did not say something false, because he intended to do what he said. Consequently, his words must be understood as suggesting his intention and not a future event about which he was not certain. Hence he was not able to predict this except under the condition which James mentions: "Instead you ought to say, ‘If the Lord wills’ and ‘If we shall live, we shall do this or that’" (Jas 4:15). And so the Apostle excuses himself in 2 Cor (1:17) for not visiting them, as he had promised: "Was I vacillating when I wanted to do this? Do I make my plans like a worldly man, ready to say Yes and No at once?" (2 Cor 1:17). And so, since he failed to do from a just cause what he had promised, he declares himself immune from levity, carnality and falseness. And this is how Pope Gelasius resolves the question, as can be found in the decretals:39 "Blessed Paul therefore should not be thought to deceive—God forbid!—or to show himself an adversary because, although he had promised to go to Spain, he did not fulfill that promise, being occupied by divine providence with more important matters. As far as his own will was concerned, he said in truth that he wanted to do it. But as regards the secrets of God’s plan—which as a man he could know, even though we was filled with the spirit of God—he did not in fact do it, being prevented by the heavenly plan." For even though he had the prophetic spirit, not all things are revealed to the prophets, as is clear in 2 King 4(:27), where Elijah says, "Her soul is in bitterness, and the Lord has concealed it from me, and has not told it to me." 591 1187. Then when he says, and I know, he foretells the fruit of his visit, saying: and I know, namely, from my confidence in God’s grace, that when I come to you, I shall come in the fullness of the blessing of Christ, i.e., Christ will give His blessing more abundantly to you in my coming, about which it says in Ps 84 (v. 7): "They shall go from strength to strength," and which Laban said to Jacob (Gen 32:7): "I have learned that God blessed me because of you." 1188. Then [n. 1163] when he says, I appeal to you, brethren, he asks them for the favor of their prayers: first, he seeks their prayers; secondly, he prays for them [v. 31; n. 1192]. 1189. In regard to the first he does three things: first, he urges them to pray for him for three reasons. First, from divine charity when he says: I appeal to you, brethren: "For love’s sake I prefer to appeal to you" (Phlm 1:9). Secondly, from their reverence for Christ, of Whom he was a minister, saying: by our Lord Jesus Christ, in Whom we are all one as stated above (12:5). Thirdly, from the gift of the Holy Spirit, which was handed over to his ministry; hence he adds: by the love of the spirit, which the Holy Spirit pours forth in our hearts, as was stated above (5:5). 1190. Secondly, he asks the help of their prayers, saying: that you help me in your prayers for me to God, namely, poured out for me: "A brother helped is like a strong city" (Pr 18:19). 592 Bu as the Gloss [of Lombard, col. 1526] says, the Apostle does not say this because he has less merit than others inferior to him, but he follows due order. First, that prayer be said by the Church for its ruler, as he says in I Tim (2:1): "First of all, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all men, for kings and all who are in high position." Secondly, because many of the least, when they are assembled together, obtain more merit. Therefore, it is impossible that the prayers of many be ineffective" (Mt (18:19): "If two of you agree on earth about anything they ask, it will be done for them by my Father in heaven." Thirdly, that when many pray, many thanksgivings are heard, as it says in 2 Cor (1:11): "You also must help us by prayer, so that many will give thanks on our behalf for the blessing granted. 1191. Thirdly, he mentions things he wishes to be obtained by him, the first of which pertains to the enemies he had in Judea; hence he says: that I may be delivered from the unbelievers in Judea, who particularly attacked and hated Paul, because he confidently preached the end of the legal observances: "They have been told about you that you teach that Moses should be forsaken" (Ac 21:21). The second pertains to those into whose ministry he want. And this is what he adds: and that my service, i.e., the alms I minister to them, may be acceptable to the saints who are in Jerusalem, i.e., that from this they may be induced to pray for the Gentiles from whom they receive. The third pertains to those to whom he was writing: hence he adds: so that I may come to you with joy, and this by God’s will, against which he wanted to do nothing: "Asking that somehow by God’s will I may now at last succeed in coming to you" (Rom 1:10) and be refreshed in your company, i.e., that from your presence I may receive refreshment from my tribulations. 593 1192. Then when he says, the God of peace, he shows that he is praying for them, saying: The God of peace, i.e., the giver of peace, be with you all, by the fact that you are at peace with one another: "Agree with one another and the God of peace will be with you" (2Cor 13:11). He adds, Amen, i.e., let it be so: "Let the people say, ‘Amen’" (Ps 106:48).

1193. After mentioning certain personal matters about himself to the Romans to whom he was writing, the Apostle now presents certain personal matters pertaining to others. In regard to this he does three things: first, he suggests what they should do for others; secondly, he tells what other do to them [v. 23; n. 1221]; thirdly, he ends the epistle with thanksgiving [v. 25; n. 1223]. In regard to the first he does two things: first, he indicates whom they should welcome; secondly, he shows whom they should avoid [v. 17; n. 1213]. In regard to the first he requests that certain persons in particular be welcomed; secondly, he points out in a general way how to greet them [v. 16; n. 1211]; thirdly, he greets them on the part of the faithful [v. 21; n. 1212]. 1194. In regard to the first he mentions a certain Corinthian woman who went to Rome. He recommends her to them, describing her, first of all, by name, saying: I 596 commend to you Phoebe, who although devoted to God, did not have sufficient influence not to need letters of recommendation, as he once said of himself: "Do we need, as some do, letters of recommendation?" (2 Cor 3:1). Secondly, he describes her religion and faith, saying our sister. For all the women believers were called sisters and all the men brothers: "You are all brothers" (Mt 23:8). Thirdly, from her pious activity, when he says: who is in the ministry of the church at Cenchreae, a port city of the Corinthians, where some Christians were gathered whom this woman had served, just as it was said of Christ Himself (Lk 8:3) that certain women provided for Him out of their means. And about the widow to be enrolled I Tim (5:10) says: "If she has shown hospitality and has washed the feet of the saints." 1195. Then he mentions two things he wants done for her, the first of which is that she be honorable received. And this is what he says: that you may receive her in the Lord, i.e., for the love of God, as befits the saints, for it says in Mt (10:41): "He who receives a righteous man because he is a righteous man shall receive a righteous man’s reward." Instead of as befits the saints [digne sanctis], some books have "worthily enough" [digne satis], i.e., fittingly; but those texts do not agree with the Greek. The second is that they be solicitous in helping her; hence he adds: and help her, namely, by affording advice and aid in any enterprise she may need you. For she possibly had something to settle in Caesar’s curia. 597 1196. But something in I Th (4:11) seems to be opposed to this recommendation, for it says: "Take care of your own business." As if to say: do not get involved in other people’s affairs. The answer is that one can help in another’s affairs in the ways: first, in a worldly way, i.e., for the favor of men or for gain; and this does not befit God’s servants. "No soldier of God gets entangled in civilian pursuits" (2 Tim 2:4). In another way someone may help in another’s affairs out of piety; for example, to help the needy and the wretched, and this is religious according to Jas (1:27): Religion pure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows in their distress and to keep oneself unstained from this world." It is in this way that the Apostle speaks here. 1197. Finally, the Apostle tells why this is owed to her, saying: She has been a help of many of myself as well: "Tell the righteous that it shall be well with them, for they shall eat the fruit of their deeds" (Is 3:10); "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy" (Mt 5:7). 1198. Then he recommends other persons connected with him to be greeted, saying: Greet Prisca and Aquila, who was her husband, but he mentions her first, perhaps because of the greater devotion of her faith, my fellow workers in Christ, i.e., in preaching the faith of Christ. For he stayed with them in Corinth, as is found in Acts (18:1-3). 1199. Who risked their necks for my life, i.e., put themselves in danger of death to save my life, an indication of the greatest charity: "Greater love has no man than that he lay down his life for his friends" (Jn 15:13). 598 This seems to have happened at Corinth where Paul suffered persecution, as is found in Acts (18:6). Or perhaps it is better to say that others exposed themselves to danger for the Apostle. For what is read in Acts (18:21) occurred when Prisca and Aquila left Rome for Corinth. But the Apostle wrote this, when he thought they were still at Rome. Now the Apostle’s life was necessary not so much for himself as for others, as he says in Phil (1:24): "But to remain in the flesh is more necessary on our account." Therefore he continues: to whom not only I give thanks but also all the Church of the Gentiles, whose apostle and teacher I am: "A teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (I Tim 2:7); greet also the church in their house. For they had many believers assembled in their house. 1200. Then he wants another person joined to him by love to be greeted, saying: Greet my beloved Epaenetus, who was the first convert in Asia for Christ. This lent him great dignity: "You have come to the assembly of the firstborn, who are enrolled in heaven" (Heb 12:23). But at that time he was in Rome. 1201. Then he says: Greet Mary, who has worked hard among you to restore concord among them, and when she failed in her endeavor, she notified the Apostle: "The fruit of good labors is renowned." (Wis 3:15). Then he says, Greet Andronicus and Junias, whom he describes, first, from their race when he says: my kinsmen. This shows that they were Jews, about whom he said above (9:3): "They are my kinsmen by race." Secondly, from the suffering they endured for Christ, saying" and my fellow prisoners. For they had been in prison once with the Apostle: "with far more imprisonments" (2Cor 11:23). Thirdly, from their authority when he says: they are men of note among the 599 apostles, i.e., noble among the preachers. Fourthly, from the time, when he says: and they were in Christ before me. For they had been converted before the Apostle and thus were owed greater respect: "Do not rebuke an older man, but exhort him as you would a father" (I Tim 5:1). 1203. Then he says, Greet Ampliatus, my beloved in the Lord, beloved in the love of charity, which is in Christ: "God is my witness, how I yearn for you all with the affection of Christ Jesus" (Phil 1:8). 1204. Then he says, Greet Urbanas, our fellow worker in Christ, i.e., in preaching the faith: "A brother helped is like a strong city" (Pr 18:19), and my beloved Stachys. He mentions them together, perhaps because they lived together or were connected in some other way. 1205. Then he says, Greet Apelles, who is approved in Christ, perhaps through certain tribulations: "When he has tried me, I shall come forth as gold" (Jb 23:10). 1206. Then he says, Greet all who of the house, i.e., of the family, of Aristobulus, in whose house many believers were gathered whom he does not greet, perhaps because they were absent for some reason. Then he says, Greet my kinsman Herodion, who from the designation is said to be Jewish. Then he says, Greet all who belong to the family of Narcissus, who is said to have been a presbyter and wandered through desert places to comfort the faithful. Hence the Apostle, knowing that he was away, did not ask that he be greeted but his family. Yet there were some unbelievers in this family, and therefore to note the difference, he says: who are in the Lord, because he was asking only believers to be 600 greeted: "If anyone comes to you and does not bring the doctrine, do not receive him into your house or give him any greeting" (2 Jn v. 10). 1207. Then he says, Greet Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who have labored in the Lord, i.e., in ministering to the saints, which the Lord regards as done to Himself, as it says in Mt (25:40): "As you did it to one of these, the least of my brethren, you did it to me." Then he says, Greet the beloved Persis, whom the Apostle especially loved for his devotion. Hence he adds: who has worked hard in the Lord, i.e., by exhorting others and ministering to the saints, and even in poverty and other spiritual works: "In toil and hardship, in hunger and thirst" (2 Cor 11:27). 1208. Then he says, Greet Rufus, elect in the Lord, i.e., in the grace of Christ: "He chose us in him before the foundation of the world" (Eph 1:4); also his mother, according to the flesh, and mine, because she was his mother as a benefactor. For she had served the Apostle at one time, although she was not in Rome: "Older women like mothers, younger women like sisters, in all purity" (I Tim 5:2). 1209. Then he says, Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas and all the brethren who are with them. He greets them together, because they lived together in harmony: "God gives the lonely a home to live in" (Ps 68:6). 1210. Then he says, Greet Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas and all the saints who are with them, i.e., sanctified in the faith of Christ: "You were washed, you were sanctified" (I Cor 6:11). 1211. Then he shows them in general how to greet others, saying: Greet one another with a holy kiss, which he says to distinguish it from a sensual kiss, about which 601 Pr (7:13) says: "She seizes him and kisses him"; and to distinguish it from a deceitful kiss, about which Pr (27:6) says: "Better are wounds from a friend than the fraudulent kisses of an enemy." The holy kiss is given as a sign of the Blessed Trinity: "O that he would kiss me with the kiss of his mouth" (Song 1:2). From this the custom arose in the Church whereby the faithful give one another the kiss of peace during the solemnities of the Mass. 1212. Then he greets them on behalf of the other churches, saying: all the churches of Christ greet you, i.e., those assembled in the name and faith of Christ, because all wish your salvation and pray for you: "Pray for one another, that you may be saved" (Jas 5:16).

1213. After indicating whom they should greet, the Apostle now shows them whom to avoid. In regard to this he does three things: first, he teaches whom they should avoid; secondly, he gives the reason [v. 18; n. 1218]; thirdly, he promises them divine help to implement this [v. 20; n. 1220]. 1214. And because those whom he wished them to avoid crept in deceptively under the cloak of piety, as it says in Mt (7:15): They come to you in sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are ravenous wolves," he urges them to be cautious, saying: I appeal 603 to you, brethren, to observe those who create dissensions and difficulties in opposition to the doctrine you have been taught. 1215. Here, first of all, it should be noted that to observe is nothing more than to consider carefully: which, of course, is sometimes taken in a good sense and sometimes in an evil sense. It is taken in an evil sense when someone carefully considers the condition and progress of someone in order to inflict harm, as it says in Ps 37 (v. 12): "The wicked plots against the righteous and gnashes his teeth against him," and in Lk (14:1) it says: "And they were watching him." In a good sense it is taken in one way, when one considers God’s precepts to obey them: "Observe him and hearken to his voice" (Ex 23:21). In another way, when a person considers good men to imitate them, as it says in Phil (3:17): "Brethren, join in imitating me and mark those who so live as you have an example in us." Thirdly, the evil are observed as persons to be avoided; and that is the way it is taken here. 1216. For there were certain Jewish converts to the faith who preached that the practices of the Law must be observed. From this followed dissensions and sects in the Church, since some adhered to their error but others continued in the true faith: "Dissension, sects…." (Gal 5:20). Then followed hindrances and stumbling blocks already discussed in v. 14, while some would judge others and some would spurn others who caused dissensions and hindrances: "Remove every obstruction from my people’s way" (Is 57:14). But he says: in opposition to the doctrine you have been taught by the true apostles of Christ, to show that such dissensions and stumbling blocks derive from 604 false doctrine: "If anyone is preaching to you a Gospel other than the one I preached to you, let him be accursed" (Gal 1:9). 1217. Secondly, he warns them that once known they should be avoided; hence he says: Avoid them, i.e., fly from their doctrine and company: "Depart from me, you evildoers" (Ps 119:115). 1218. Then when he says, For such persons, he assigns two reasons for what he had said, the first of which is taken on the part of those whom he wants avoided. First, he describes their condition, saying: Such persons do not serve our Lord Christ but their own bellies. For they preached not for the glory of Christ but for revenue, in order to fill their belly: "For many, of whom I have often told you and now tell you even with tears, live as enemies of the cross of Christ. Their god is their belly" (Phil 3:18). Secondly, he describes their deception, saying: by fair and flattering words they deceive the hearts of the simpleminded, i.e., of the innocent and inexperienced: "The simple believe everything" (Pr 14:15). By fair words they pretend to be holy: "They speak peace with their neighbor, while mischief is in their hearts" (Ps 28:3). And blessings, with which they bless and flatter those who follow them: "My people, those who call you blessed mislead you" (Is 3:12); "I will curse your blessings" (Mal 2:2). 1219. He assigns the second reason from a trait of the Romans, who found it easy to follow good and evil. First, he commends them for their readiness to accept the good, saying: Your obedience, by which you obey the faith so easily, is known in every place on account of the dominion the Romans then exercised over other nations. Hence, anything done by the 605 Romans was easily divulged to others. "Your faith is proclaimed in all the world" (Rom 1:8). Therefore, I rejoice over you, because you obey the faith; and this in charity, about which he says in I Cor (13:6) that love does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right. Secondly, he cautions them against evil, saying: I would have you wise in what is good, (5:21); and guileless as to what is evil, lest through some simplicity you slip into evil, that your simplicity be such that you deceive no one into evil: "Be wise as serpents and simple as doves" (Mt 10:16). On the other hand it is said of certain persons: "They are skilled in doing evil, but how to do good they know not" (Jer 4:22). 1220. Then when he says, Then the God of peace, he promises them divine help against such deceivers. First, he makes the promise when he says: But the God of peace, i.e., its author, Who hates the dissensions they cause, will crush Satan, i.e., the devil, who is trying to deceive you through these false apostles, under your feet, because you will overcome him by your wisdom. And he will do this soon, namely, when he comes: "Behold, I have given you power to tread upon serpents and scorpions and over all the power of the enemy" (Lk 10:19); "You shall tread down the wicked, for they will be ashes under the soles of your feet" (Mal 4:3). Secondly, he says a prayer to obtain this when he says: The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you, which is enough to guard you: "My grace is sufficient for you" (2 Cor 12:9). 1221. Then when he says, Timothy, he greets them on the part of others, saying: Timothy, my fellow worker greets you: "I have sent you Timothy, who is my dearest and 606 faithful son in the preaching of the gospel" (I Cor 4:17). He adds: so do Lucius and Jason and Sosipater, my kinsmen, who were Jews. Tertius, Paul’s secretary, was allowed to greet the Romans personally with Paul’s consent. Hence he adds: I, Tertius, the writer of this letter, greet you in the Lord. Then when he says: Gaius, who is my host, was the person to whom John wrote in his third letter commending the charity he exercised toward the saints; and host to the whole church, namely, who were assembled in his house or who were in that region. Then he says: Erastus, the city treasurer, i.e., who guarded the city’s money, and your brother Quartus greet you. 1222. Then he greets them on his own, saying: The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen. 1223. He finishes the epistle with thanksgiving, saying: now to him, namely, to God Who is the Trinity, who is able to strengthen you: "After you have suffered a little, he will himself restore, establish and strengthen you" (I Pt 5:10); and this in the faith which is according to the Gospel, namely according to the Gospel I preach: "Whether, then, it was I or they, so we preach and so you believed" (I Cor 15:11); and also according to the preaching of Jesus Christ, Who first preached the Gospel, as it says in Heb (2:3): "It was declared at first by the Lord. Hence Mt (4:23) states that Jesus went about preaching the Gospel of the kingdom. 1224. Then he adds, according to the revelation of the mystery, i.e., the secret, which can refer to what he had said, namely, "according to my Gospel," either because the secret of the divine incarnation is revealed in the Gospel, in accord with the above (1:17), "in it the justice of God is revealed"; or because the Gospel was revealed to the 607 Apostle himself: "God has revealed to us through the Spirit" (I Cor 2:10). Of this secret it says in Is 24(:16), "My secret to myself." Or it can be referred better to the word he had used, "to strengthen." As if to say: God can strengthen you in my Gospel and preaching; and this according to the revelation of the mystery, i.e., of the secret, namely, about the conversion of the Gentiles, as he says in Eph (3:8): "To me the least of saints this grace was given, to preach to the Gentiles the mystery hidden for ages in God." 1225. Hence, he continues: kept secret for eternal ages, namely, because it had been hidden among men that the Gentiles were to be converted to the faith. He calls these "eternal ages," as though lasting a long time, because this was hidden from the beginning of the world: "Glorious art thou, more wonderful than the eternal mountains" (Ps 76:4). It can be said that the long ages are eternity itself about which Is (57:15) says: "The high and lofty One who inhabits eternity." So that just as the simple essence of God is described in terms of a likeness to bodily dimensions, as Jb (11:9) says: "its measure is longer than the earth and broader than the sea," so His simple eternity is called eternal times, inasmuch as it contains all times. 1226. Then he continues: But which, namely, the mystery, is now disclosed, i.e., about the conversion of the Gentiles, through the prophetic writings, i.e., as the prophets foretold. Hence, he says in Eph (3:5ff): "This mystery was not made known to the sons of men in other generations as it has now been revealed to his holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit, that is, now the Gentiles are fellow heirs, members of the same body…" But it was made known by fulfillment of a work proceeding from God’s command. Hence, according to the command of the eternal God, Who by an eternal 608 decree accomplishes His will in time. This command of God to bring about the obedience of faith is made known to all nations, i.e., that all nations should obey the faith: "to bring about the obedience of faith among the nations" (Rom 1:5). 1227. But if we speak of the incarnation, the text can be constructed thus: of the mystery, I say, kept secret for eternal ages, because previously it was not so manifest. Which mystery has now been made known through the prophetic writings, which predicted this, according to a command of the eternal God, who willed the mystery of the incarnation to become known, and this to bring about obedience to the faith among all nations. A mystery, I say, known to the wise God alone, because He alone knew it and knew those to whom He wished it to be revealed," for as it says in I Cor (2:11): "no one knows the things of God except the spirit of God." Or it can be understood of Him Who alone is wise, i.e., by His very nature, as it says in Mk (10:18): "No one is good but God alone." This does not exclude the Son, because the perfection of the whole Trinity is the same; just as, conversely, when it is said: "No one knows the Father but he Son" (Mt 11:27), the Father is not excluded from knowledge of Himself. 1228. He adds, through Jesus Christ. This does not mean that the Father is wise through Jesus Christ; because, since in God to be wise is the same as to be, it would follow that the Father would be wise through the Son - which is fallacious. But this must be referred to what he had said above (v. 26): "it is now disclosed." Namely, through Jesus Christ. To whom, i.e., to Jesus Christ, be honor and glory, through the reverence paid by every creature: "At the name of Jesus every knee shall bend" (Phil 2:10), and glory namely, in regard to the full godhead, as Phil (2:11) says: "And every tongue 609 610 confess that Jesus Christ is Lord in the glory of God the Father," not for a time, but for evermore: "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever" (Heb 13:8). To confirm its truth he adds: Amen. 1229. Or it can be constructed thus: Known to the only wise God, to whom be glory through Jesus Christ, who glorified God, as it says in Jn (17:4): "I glorified thee on earth."