Zephaniah 1:9

Translation
King James Version
In the same day also will I punish all those that leap on the threshold, which fill their masters' houses with violence and deceit.
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KJV (with Strong's)
In the same day H3117 also will I punish H6485 all those that leap H1801 on the threshold H4670, which fill H4390 their masters H113' houses H1004 with violence H2555 and deceit H4820.
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Complete Jewish Bible
On the same day I will also punish all who jump over the threshold to fill the house of their master with violence and deceit.
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Berean Standard Bible
On that day I will punish all who leap over the threshold, who fill the house of their master with violence and deceit.
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American Standard Version
And in that day I will punish all those that leap over the threshold, that fill their master’s house with violence and deceit.
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World English Bible Messianic
In that day, I will punish all those who leap over the threshold, who fill their master’s house with violence and deceit.
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Geneva Bible (1599)
In the same day also will I visite all those that dance vpon the threshold so proudly, which fill their masters houses by crueltie and deceite.
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Young's Literal Translation
And I have laid a charge on every one Who is leaping over the threshold in that day, Who are filling the house of their masters With violence and deceit.
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See also
1 Samuel 5:5Amos 3:10Nehemiah 5:151 Samuel 2:151 Samuel 2:16Acts 16:192 Kings 5:20
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The Vision of Zephaniah
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In the KJVVerse 22,797 of 31,102

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SUMMARY

Zephaniah 1:9 declares God's impending judgment on specific groups within Judah who blend pagan superstition with social corruption. This divine pronouncement targets those engaging in illicit religious practices, symbolized by "leaping on the threshold," and those who exploit their positions to accumulate wealth through "violence and deceit," filling their homes with ill-gotten gains. The verse underscores God's unwavering commitment to justice and purity, signaling a pervasive moral decay that warrants severe divine reckoning during the prophesied "Day of the Lord."

CONTEXT

  • Literary Context: Zephaniah 1:9 is embedded within the opening chapter of the prophet's message, which primarily focuses on the impending "Day of the Lord"—a day of wrath, distress, and desolation for Judah and the nations. The preceding verses (Zephaniah 1:2-8) establish the comprehensive nature of this judgment, targeting all forms of idolatry, those who turn away from the Lord, and those who do not seek Him. Verse 9 specifically narrows the focus to particular manifestations of sin within Jerusalem, highlighting both religious syncretism and social injustice that have become endemic. It follows a general indictment of those who are "cut off" (Zephaniah 1:4) and precedes a more detailed description of the Day of the Lord's devastating impact on the city (Zephaniah 1:10-18), setting the stage for a thorough cleansing of the land.
  • Historical & Cultural Context: Zephaniah ministered during the reign of King Josiah (c. 640-609 BC), a period of significant religious reform that followed decades of intense idolatry under Manasseh and Amon. While Josiah initiated a widespread purge of pagan practices and a restoration of true Yahwistic worship, Zephaniah's prophecy reveals that deep-seated corruption and syncretism persisted, particularly among the elite and within the capital, Jerusalem. The phrase "leap on the threshold" (Hebrew: dalag al ha-sap) is widely interpreted as a reference to a pagan or superstitious custom. The most prominent theory connects it to the Philistine practice of not stepping on the threshold of Dagon's temple, a tradition originating from the account in 1 Samuel 5:5 where Dagon's idol fell before the Ark of the Covenant. This suggests Judahites may have adopted foreign religious rituals, indicating a failure to fully abandon idolatry despite Josiah's reforms. Alternatively, some scholars propose it refers to violent entry, like robbers, or to corrupt officials who "leaped" over legal or ethical boundaries to exploit the populace. The "masters' houses" could refer to their own homes, filled with ill-gotten gains, or the royal/temple treasuries they were entrusted with but plundered through "violence and deceit."
  • Key Themes: Zephaniah 1:9 contributes significantly to several key themes prevalent in the book and broader prophetic literature. Firstly, it underscores the theme of Divine Judgment on Corruption, demonstrating that God's wrath is not indiscriminate but precisely targets specific forms of sin, whether religious or social. Secondly, it highlights the pervasive issue of Paganism and Syncretism within Judah, where foreign religious practices, even seemingly minor ones like "leaping on the threshold," were an affront to God's exclusive covenant demands, echoing the first commandment against having other gods. Thirdly, the condemnation of those who "fill their masters' houses with violence and deceit" emphasizes God's deep concern for Social Injustice. This theme, common throughout the prophets, condemns exploitation, oppression, and dishonest practices, as seen in passages like Micah 6:10, which condemns unjust weights and measures. Finally, the verse implicitly conveys the theme of God's Omniscience and Accountability, revealing that even hidden or seemingly insignificant acts of sin do not escape God's notice and will be brought to judgment.

EXPOSITION AND ANALYSIS

Key Word Analysis

  • punish (Hebrew, pâqad', H6485): This primitive root means "to visit" with either friendly or hostile intent. In this context, it signifies a visitation for the purpose of judgment or reckoning. It implies God's active oversight and intervention to hold individuals accountable for their actions, not merely a passive observation.
  • leap (Hebrew, dâlag', H1801): A primitive root meaning "to spring" or "leap." In Zephaniah 1:9, it describes a specific action, likely ritualistic or superstitious, associated with the threshold. Its active nature suggests a deliberate engagement in the condemned practice.
  • threshold (Hebrew, miphtân', H4670): Derived from a root meaning "to open," this word refers to a "stretcher" or "sill," specifically the lower part of a doorway. In ancient cultures, thresholds often held symbolic or sacred significance, making the act of "leaping" on it a meaningful gesture, especially in a religious context.
  • violence (Hebrew, châmâç', H2555): This term denotes not just physical force but also injustice, wrong, cruelty, and by implication, unjust gain. It describes a broad spectrum of oppressive and harmful actions against others.
  • deceit (Hebrew, mirmâh', H4820): Derived from a root meaning "to deceive," this word signifies fraud, treachery, trickery, and guile. It points to dishonest and manipulative practices used to gain advantage, often in conjunction with violence.

Verse Breakdown

  • "In the same day also will I punish all those that leap on the threshold": This clause sets the timing of the judgment ("in the same day," referring to the Day of the Lord) and identifies the first group targeted: those who engage in a specific, illicit practice related to the threshold. This act is understood as a superstitious or pagan ritual, a syncretistic blending of foreign religious customs with the worship of Yahweh, or a symbolic representation of illicit entry or disregard for sacred boundaries. God's "punishment" signifies a deliberate act of divine reckoning against this spiritual infidelity.
  • "which fill their masters' houses with violence and deceit": This second clause identifies another group, or perhaps further describes the same group, focusing on their social and economic corruption. "Masters' houses" refers to their own residences, which they have filled with wealth acquired through "violence" (oppression, injustice, exploitation) and "deceit" (fraud, trickery, dishonesty). This highlights a pervasive moral decay where personal gain is prioritized over justice and integrity, reflecting a systemic abuse of power and trust.

Literary Devices

Zephaniah 1:9 employs several literary devices to convey its powerful message. Symbolism is evident in the "threshold," which, as discussed, likely symbolizes a pagan ritual or a boundary crossed illicitly, representing the spiritual compromise and moral transgression of the people. The phrase "fill their masters' houses" uses Metonymy, where "houses" stand for the ill-gotten wealth and possessions accumulated through corrupt means, emphasizing the extent of their unjust gain. The verb "fill" also suggests Hyperbole, indicating not just acquisition but an overflowing abundance of wealth obtained through "violence and deceit," underscoring the pervasive and egregious nature of their corruption. The stark juxtaposition of religious transgression ("leap on the threshold") and social injustice ("violence and deceit") also serves as a form of Juxtaposition, highlighting the dual nature of Judah's sin that draws God's judgment.

THEOLOGICAL AND THEMATIC CONNECTIONS

Zephaniah 1:9 profoundly illustrates God's unyielding righteousness and His demand for both spiritual purity and social justice from His covenant people. It reveals that God's judgment is comprehensive, addressing not only overt idolatry but also subtle forms of spiritual compromise and pervasive social corruption. The "Day of the Lord" is presented as a time when God actively intervenes to purge His people of these transgressions, demonstrating His sovereignty over all aspects of human life—religious, social, and economic. This verse underscores the biblical principle that true worship of God cannot be divorced from ethical conduct and that injustice and dishonesty are as offensive to Him as idolatry. It serves as a stark reminder that God sees and judges all hidden deeds and motivations, holding His people accountable for their stewardship and their adherence to His moral law.

REFLECTION AND APPLICATION

Zephaniah 1:9 serves as a timeless mirror for believers today, challenging us to examine the purity of our worship and the integrity of our lives. Just as ancient Judah was tempted by syncretism and social corruption, we too face pressures to compromise our faith with worldly values or to engage in dishonest practices for personal gain. This verse calls us to a radical commitment to God alone, guarding against any "leaping on the threshold" that might subtly blend our devotion with superstitions, cultural trends, or ideologies that contradict biblical truth. Furthermore, it compels us to scrutinize how we acquire and manage resources, urging us to reject "violence and deceit" in all its forms—whether through exploitation in the workplace, dishonesty in business dealings, or any act that oppresses or defrauds others. The divine judgment pronounced in Zephaniah reminds us that God is a righteous judge who sees beyond outward appearances, holding us accountable for every hidden thought and action. Therefore, our application must extend to cultivating a heart of integrity, pursuing justice in our spheres of influence, and ensuring that our worship is holistic, encompassing both spiritual devotion and ethical living.

Questions for Reflection

  • In what subtle ways might I be "leaping on the threshold" in my own life, perhaps blending Christian faith with worldly superstitions or practices?
  • How might "violence and deceit" manifest in my professional or personal dealings today, and what steps can I take to ensure integrity and justice?
  • What does Zephaniah 1:9 teach me about God's character, and how does this understanding impact my daily walk with Him?
  • Am I truly living as if God sees all my hidden actions and motivations, and how might this awareness transform my choices?

FAQ

What does "leap on the threshold" specifically refer to in Zephaniah 1:9?

Answer: The phrase "leap on the threshold" (Hebrew: dâlag al ha-sap) is subject to scholarly debate, but the most widely accepted interpretation connects it to ancient pagan rituals. It likely refers to a superstitious practice adopted by some Judahites, possibly influenced by the Philistine custom of not stepping on the threshold of Dagon's temple, as described in 1 Samuel 5:5. This act would signify a syncretistic blending of foreign idolatry with the worship of Yahweh, a clear violation of God's covenant. Other interpretations suggest it could refer to robbers violently entering homes or corrupt officials "leaping over" legal boundaries to exploit others. Regardless of the precise ritual, it signifies an act of spiritual or moral transgression that incurs God's wrath.

Who are the "masters" whose houses are being filled with violence and deceit?

Answer: The term "masters" (Hebrew: ʼâdôwn) can refer to owners, lords, or superiors. In this context, "their masters' houses" could have a few meanings. It might refer to the houses of the corrupt individuals themselves, implying that they are filling their own homes with ill-gotten gains acquired through "violence and deceit" (e.g., exploitation, fraud, bribery). Alternatively, it could refer to the houses or treasuries of their superiors (e.g., the king, temple officials) or even the Lord's house, which they were entrusted to manage but instead plundered for personal enrichment. The latter interpretation highlights a betrayal of trust and systemic corruption within the administrative or religious structures of Judah. The common thread is the condemnation of those who use their positions or power to unjustly enrich themselves at the expense of others.

How does "violence and deceit" in Zephaniah 1:9 relate to broader biblical themes of justice?

Answer: "Violence" (Hebrew: châmâç) and "deceit" (Hebrew: mirmâh) represent a pervasive moral corruption that is consistently condemned throughout the Old Testament, particularly in the prophetic books. Châmâç encompasses not just physical aggression but also injustice, oppression, and wrongful gain, while mirmâh signifies fraud, treachery, and trickery. Together, they describe a society where the vulnerable are exploited, and honesty is abandoned for personal profit. This directly opposes God's character and His covenant demands for justice and righteousness, as articulated in the Law and reiterated by the prophets. Passages like Amos 5:24 and Micah 6:8 emphasize that God desires justice and righteousness to flow like a river, and Zephaniah 1:9 underscores that the absence of these qualities incurs divine judgment.

CHRIST-CENTERED FULFILLMENT

Zephaniah 1:9, with its stark portrayal of judgment against religious syncretism and social injustice, finds its ultimate fulfillment and resolution in Jesus Christ. The "Day of the Lord" that Zephaniah foretells, a day of reckoning for sin, culminates in the person and work of Christ. Jesus, the perfect Lamb of God, became the object of divine judgment for the "violence and deceit" (sin) of humanity, bearing the wrath that we deserved on the cross (Isaiah 53:5-6). His sacrifice provides the only true cleansing from the pervasive corruption that Zephaniah condemns, offering forgiveness and a path to genuine righteousness for all who believe (Romans 3:23-26). Furthermore, Jesus vehemently condemned the hypocrisy and injustice of the religious leaders of His day, who, like those in Zephaniah's time, often maintained outward religious observance while engaging in exploitation and deceit (Matthew 23:27-28). He called for a worship that is "in spirit and truth," free from syncretism and outward show (John 4:23-24), and His kingdom is characterized by righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit (Romans 14:17). Ultimately, Christ is the one who will execute the final, perfect judgment on all unrighteousness, bringing an end to all "violence and deceit" and establishing His eternal reign of perfect justice (Revelation 20:11-15).

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Commentary on Zephaniah 1 verses 7–13

Notice is here given to Judah and Jerusalem that God is coming forth against them, and will be with them shortly; his presence, as a just avenger, his day, the day of his judgment and his wrath, are not far off, Zep 1:7. Those that improve not the presence of God with them as a Father, but sin away that presence, may expect his presence with them as a Judge, to call them to an account for the contempt put upon his grace. The day of the Lord will come. Men have their day now, when they take a liberty to do what they please; but God's day is at hand; it is here called his sacrifice, a sacrifice of his preparing, for the punishing of presumptuous sinners is a sacrifice to the justice of God, some reparation to his injured honour. Those that brought their offerings to other gods were themselves justly made victims to the true God. On a day of sacrifice great slaughter was made; so shall there be in Jerusalem; men shall be killed up as fast as lambs for the altar, with as little regret, with as much pleasure: The slain of the Lord shall be many. On a day of sacrifice great feasts were made upon the sacrifices; so the inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem shall be feasted upon by their enemies the Chaldeans; these are the guests God has prepared and invited to come and glut themselves - their revenge with slaughter and their covetousness with plunder. Now observe,

I. Who those are that are marked to be sacrificed, that shall be visited and punished in this day of reckoning, and what it is they shall be called to an account for. 1. The royal family, because of the dignity of their place, shall be first reckoned with for their pride, and vanity, and affectation (Zep 1:8): I will punish the princes, and the king's children, who think themselves accountable to God, and that, high as they are, he is above them. They shall be punished, and all such as, like them, are clothed with strange apparel, such as, in contempt of their own country (where, probably, it was the custom to go in a very plain dress, as became the seed of Jacob that plain man), affected to appear in the fashion of other nations and introduced their modes in apparel, studying to resemble those from whom God had appointed them, even in their clothes, industriously to distinguish themselves. The princes and the king's children scorned to wear any home-made stuffs, though God had provided them fine linen and silks (Eze 16:10), but they must send abroad to strange countries for their clothes, which would not please unless they were far-fetched and dear-bought; and even those of inferior rank affected to imitate the princes and the king's children. Pride in apparel is displeasing to God, and a symptom of the degeneracy of a people. 2. The noblemen, and their stewards and servants, come next to be reckoned with (Zep 1:9): In the same day will I punish those that leap on the threshold, a phrase, no doubt, well understood then, and which probably signified the invading of their neighbour's rights. Entering their houses by force and violence, and seizing their possessions, they leap on the threshold, as much as to say that the house is their own and they will keep their hold of it; and, accordingly, they make all in it their own that they can lay their hands on, and so fill their masters' houses with goods gotten by violence and deceit and with all the guilt thereby contracted. Nor shall it suffice them to say that the ill-gotten gains were not for themselves but for their masters, and that what they did was by their order; for the obligations we lie under to keep God's commandments are prior and superior to the obligations we lie under to serve the interests of any master on earth. 3. The trading people, and the rich merchants, are next called to account. Iniquity is found in their end of the town, among the inhabitants of Maktesh, a low part of Jerusalem, deep like a mortar (for so the word signifies); the goldsmiths lived there (Neh 3:32) and the merchants; and they are now cut down (they are broken, and have shut up their shops, and become bankrupts); nay, All those that bear silver are cut off, in the first place, by the invaders, for the sake of the silver they carry, which is so far from being a protection to them that it will expose and betray them. The conquerors aimed at the wealthy men, and carried them off first, while the poor of the land escaped. Or it may be meant of a general decay of trade, which was a preface and introduction to the general destruction of the land. It is the token of a declining state when great dealers are cut down, and great bankers are cut off and become bankrupts, who cannot fall alone, but with themselves ruin many. 4. All the secure and careless people, the sons of pleasure, that live a loose idle life, are next reckoned with (Zep 1:12); they come from all parts of the country, to take up their quarters in the head-quarters of the kingdom, where they take private lodgings, and indulge themselves in ease and luxury; but God will find them out, and punish them: At that time I will search Jerusalem with candles, to discover them, that they may be brought out to condign punishment. This intimates that they conceal themselves, as being either ashamed of the sin or afraid of the punishment of it; when the judgments of God are abroad they hope to escape by absconding and getting out of the way, but God will search Jerusalem, as search is made for a malefactor in disguise, that is harboured by his accomplices. God's hand will find out all his enemies, wherever they lie hid, and will punish not only the secret idolaters, but the secret epicures and profane; and those are the persons that are here described, and marks are given by which they will be discovered when strict search is made for them. (1.) Their dispositions are sensual: They are settled on their lees, intoxicated with their pleasures, strengthening themselves in their wealth and wickedness; they are secure and easy, and, because they have had no changes, they fear none, as Moab, Jer 48:11. They have not been emptied from vessel to vessel. They fill themselves with wine and strong drink, and banish all thought, saying, Tomorrow shall be as this day, Isa 56:12. Their being settled on their lees signifies the same with being enclosed in their own fat, Psa 17:10. (2.) Their notions are atheistical. They could not live such loose lives but that they say in their heart, The Lord will not do good, neither will he do evil; that is, He will do nothing. They deny his providential government of the world: "What good and evil there is in the world comes by the wheel of fortune, and not by the disposal of a wise and supreme director." They deny his moral government, and his dispensing rewards and punishments: "The Lord will not do good to those that serve him, nor do evil to those that rebel against him; and therefore there is nothing got by religion, nor lost by sin." This was the effect of their sensuality; if they were not drowned in sense, they could not be thus senseless, nor could they be so stupid if they had not stupefied themselves with the love of pleasure. It was also the cause of their sensuality; men would not make a god of their belly if they had not at first become so vain, so vile, in their imaginations, as to think the God that made them altogether such a one as themselves. But God will punish them; their end is destruction, Phi 3:19.

II. What the destruction will be with which God will punish these sinners, and what course he will take with them. 1. He will silence them (Zep 1:7): Hold thy peace at the presence of the Lord. He will force them to hold their peace, will strike them dumb with horror and amazement. They shall be speechless. All the excuses of their sin, and exceptions against the sentence, will be overruled, and they shall not have a word to say for themselves. 2. He will sacrifice them, for it is the day of the Lord's sacrifice (Zep 1:8); he will give them into the hands of their enemies, and glorify himself thereby. 3. He will fill both city and country with lamentation (Zep 1:10): In that day there shall be a noise of a cry from the fish-gate, so called because near either to the fish-ponds or to the fish-market. It belonged to the city of David (Ch2 33:14; Neh 3:3); perhaps the same with that which is called the first gate (Zac 14:10), and, if so, it will explain what follows here, And a howling from the second, that is, the second gate, which was next to that fish-gate. The alarm shall go round the walls of Jerusalem from gate to gate; and there shall be a great crashing from the hills, a mighty noise from the mountains round about Jerusalem, from the acclamations of the victorious invaders, or from the lamentations of the timorous invaded, or from both. The inhabitants of the city, even of the closest safest part of the city, shall howl (Zep 1:11), so clamorous shall the grief be. 4. They shall be stripped of all they have; it shall be a prey to the enemy (Zep 1:13): Their household goods, and shop-goods, shall become a booty, and a rich booty they shall be; their houses shall be levelled with the ground and be a desolation; those of them that have built new houses shall not inherit them, but the invaders shall get and keep possession of them. And the vineyards they have planted they shall not drink the wine of, but, instead of having it for the relief of their friends that faint among them, they shall part with it for the animating of their foes that fight against them, Deu 28:30.

Matthew Henry (1662–1714) — Commentary on the Whole Bible. This section covers verses 7–13. Public domain.
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JeromeAD 420
Commentary on Zephaniah
(Verse 8, 9.) And it shall come to pass on the day of the Lord's sacrifice, that I will punish the princes and the king's sons, and all who are clothed with foreign apparel. And I will punish everyone who arrogantly enters over the threshold on that day, those who fill the house of the Lord their God with iniquity and deceit. LXX: And it shall come to pass on the day of the Lord's sacrifice, that I will avenge the princes and the king's household, and all who are clothed with foreign garments; and I will avenge openly all who are in the vestibules on that day, those who fill the house of the Lord their God with impiety and deceit. In the captivity of Judah, when the whole people were to be sacrificed, the Lord will visit, both upon the princes who drank wine in the morning, and upon the sons of the king, or upon all of the royal lineage, or certainly upon the sons of Josiah, whom we read were either killed or captured, and upon all who were clothed in foreign garments, that is, those who worshiped idols. And upon all who proudly enter over the threshold on that day, that is, against the arrogant, who with a certain arrogance and a brow of dignity ascend the steps of the temple and the threshold of the sanctuary. Moreover, because in that place where we have interpreted, above the threshold, can be understood according to the Hebrew, those who leap over the threshold; and this is to be understood historically, I will vindicate against those who, according to the first book of Kings, do not trample upon the threshold of idols, but serve superstitions, who have filled the house (or temple) of their Lord God not only with the worship of idols, but also with iniquity and wickedness and every kind of lie, so that, along with the error of religion, iniquity is also joined to deception, directed both at those who are subject and at their neighbors. But because we have once explained it both literally and tropologically: The Lord will visit in the advent and passion of the Savior, that is, on the day of the offering of His Son above the high priests and priests of the Jewish people, and above the royal house. For until that time, the kings of Judah from the line of David persevered, according to the prophecy of Jacob: The ruler shall not fail from Judah, nor the leader from his thighs, until the one comes to whom it is reserved, and He shall be the expectation of the nations (Gen. XLIX, 10). For the host of the Lord has been taken away from the Jews. And above all, he says, those who are clothed in foreign garments, those who have departed from the protection and clothing of God, and who have covered themselves with their own error. And I will take vengeance upon all those who are clearly in the vestibules, that is, those who have left the temple of God: and although they should be inside, they have gone outside because of their sins, and have departed from the Church of God, filling His temple with impiety and deceit. This should be understood at the first coming of the Savior. However, since we have already explained about the end of the world and the day of judgment, which all interpret as the day of the Lord, we must know that during that time the Lord will visit the rulers and the shepherds who consume the milk of the sheep and shear the wool, but do not care about the flock's welfare. He will also visit the sons of the king who boast of being Christians and claim to be the children of Christ the King, and all those who are clothed in the garments of others. The clothing of the king's sons and princes, is Christ (or, We have received Christ), which we receive in baptism, according to that: Put on the Lord Jesus Christ (Rom. XIII, 14). And: Put on the bowels of mercy, goodness, humility, meekness, patience (Col. III, 12), and so on. In which it is commanded that we put on the new heavenly man, according to our Creator, and cast off the clothing of the old man with his works (Ephes. IV). Therefore, when we should be clothed with such garments, we are clothed with cruelty instead of mercy; with impatience instead of patience; with injustice instead of justice. And, to say it once, with vices instead of virtues; that is, with Antichrist instead of Christ. Thus it is said of this kind of man: 'He has put on cursing as his garment' (Psalm 109:18). The Lord will also vindicate clearly in His coming, even over those who should be in the Church with good works, but have abandoned themselves to wicked behavior, and are given over to Satan in the vestibules, no, not even in the vestibules, but before the vestibules, which is more significantly said in Greek as 'on the porches.' And he will judge above all those who fill the Church with various injustices and sins, with impieties and lies, and mix blood with blood. And if we desire to accept this upon the souls of each individual, let us understand reasonings (Alexander adds 'and perceptions'), that is, thoughts and senses, and the soul itself, which should be the dwelling place of the king. And according to the previous explanation, let us also refer the foreign garments and everything that follows to each believer, who, although they should have been clothed with Christ and always dwell within, have covered themselves with the various garments of sins and, having departed from the Church, that is, the congregation of the saints, have filled the temple of their body with wickedness and deceit.
Source: Quotations drawn from early Church Fathers and historical Christian theologians (AD 100–1500). Some quotes address the surrounding passage context rather than this verse alone.
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