The Practice of Slavery in the Roman Empire and Paul's Writings
The apostle Paul lived and ministered within the vast expanse of the Roman Empire, a society deeply permeated by the institution of slavery. To understand Paul’s teachings on this complex subject, it is imperative to first grasp the nature of Roman slavery, which differed significantly from the indentured servitude or debt-slavery found in the Old Testament Law. Roman society was utterly dependent upon slave labour, with estimates suggesting that between 25% and 35% of the empire's population were enslaved. Slaves were considered property, chattels with no legal rights, subject entirely to the will of their masters. Their origins were varied: captives of war, children sold by impoverished parents, those born into slavery, or individuals who sold themselves into bondage to pay debts. While some slaves endured brutal conditions in mines or galleys, others, particularly household slaves, might hold positions of significant responsibility as tutors, administrators, or skilled artisans. Yet, regardless of their station, their lives were precarious, their freedom non-existent, and their personhood often disregarded in the eyes of Roman law.
Old Testament Precedents and Roman Contrasts
Before delving into Paul’s epistles, it is crucial to distinguish Roman slavery from the forms of servitude permitted under the Mosaic Law. The Old Testament did not sanction the chattel slavery prevalent in Rome, where individuals were bought and sold as mere property for life. Instead, Hebrew servitude often functioned as a form of debt payment or temporary indentured labour, with specific protections and limitations:
- Limited Duration: Hebrew servants were to be released after six years of service in the seventh year (Exodus 21:2).
- Protection Against Harm: The Law provided severe penalties for masters who physically abused their servants, even resulting in freedom if an eye or tooth was lost (Exodus 21:26-27). A master who struck a servant fatally was to be surely punished (Exodus 21:20).
- Asylum for Runaways: Unlike Roman law, the Mosaic Law forbade the return of a runaway servant to his master, commanding kindness instead (Deuteronomy 23:15-16).
- Year of Jubilee: Every fifty years, all land returned to its original families, and all Hebrew bondservants were set free (Leviticus 25:39-41).
These regulations reveal a stark contrast to Roman slavery, emphasizing the dignity of the individual and providing avenues for freedom and protection, rooted in the understanding that all Israelites were God’s servants, delivered from Egyptian bondage.
Paul's Instructions to Bondservants and Masters
Paul, writing to fledgling Christian communities within the Roman Empire, did not issue a direct call for the abolition of slavery. This omission has often been a point of contention and misunderstanding. However, his approach was far more revolutionary than a mere social decree, for it struck at the very heart of the master-slave relationship by transforming it through the lens of the gospel. Paul’s primary focus was on the internal transformation of believers and their conduct within existing social structures, thereby laying the groundwork for a future where such oppressive systems could not endure.
To both bondservants and masters, Paul issued profound instructions, elevating their roles to service unto Christ:
Servants, be obedient to them that are your masters according to the flesh, with fear and trembling, in singleness of your heart, as unto Christ;
Not with eyeservice, as menpleasers; but as the servants of Christ, doing the will of God from the heart;
With good will doing service, as to the Lord, and not to men:
Knowing that whatsoever good thing any man doeth, the same shall he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or free.
Similar admonitions are found in Colossians 3:22-25 and Titus 2:9-10. Notably, in 1 Corinthians 7:21, Paul advises slaves that if they have the opportunity to be free, they should seize it, indicating that freedom is preferable.
And, ye masters, do the same things unto them, forbearing threatening: knowing that your Master also is in heaven; neither is there respect of persons with him.
And in Colossians 4:1, Paul states, "Masters, give unto your servants that which is just and equal; knowing that ye also have a Master in heaven." This injunction for justice and equity was revolutionary, demanding that masters view their slaves not as objects but as fellow human beings under the same divine authority.
The Radical Equality in Christ
Central to Paul’s theology, and profoundly impactful on the issue of slavery, was his declaration of spiritual equality in Christ. In the church, social distinctions, including that of slave and free, were dissolved in the eyes of God.
There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.
This spiritual reality meant that a Christian master and a Christian slave were brothers or sisters in Christ, kneeling together at the communion table, equal recipients of God's grace. This truth, when lived out, inherently undermined the hierarchical and dehumanizing nature of slavery. While not abolishing the legal status, it transformed the relational dynamic. A master was obligated to love, respect, and care for a fellow believer who happened to be his slave, as he would any other brother in Christ. Conversely, a slave was to serve, knowing his ultimate service was to God, and his master was also accountable to God.
The Case of Onesimus and Philemon
The Epistle to Philemon provides a powerful, practical illustration of Paul’s teachings on slavery. Onesimus, a runaway slave belonging to Philemon, a Christian brother, encountered Paul in Rome and was converted. Paul, rather than harbouring Onesimus, sent him back to Philemon, but with a letter that subtly yet powerfully advocated for his freedom and transformation of status.
If he hath wronged thee, or oweth thee ought, put that on my account;
I Paul have written it with mine own hand, I will repay it: albeit I do not say to thee how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides.
Paul appeals to Philemon not to punish Onesimus, but to receive him back "not now as a servant, but above a servant, a brother beloved" (Philemon 1:16). This was a revolutionary request. Paul was asking Philemon to welcome back a runaway slave not as property to be disciplined, but as a spiritual equal, a beloved brother in Christ, and implicitly, to grant him freedom or at least treat him as a freedman. Paul even offers to pay any debt Onesimus incurred. This epistle beautifully demonstrates how the gospel, without issuing a direct legislative ban, transformed relationships from within, making the continuation of chattel slavery morally untenable for believers.
Conclusion: The Seeds of Abolition
Paul’s approach to slavery was not one of immediate social upheaval, but of spiritual transformation. He did not call for slave revolts, which would have been suicidal for early Christians and counterproductive to the spread of the gospel. Instead, he introduced principles that, over time, would fundamentally undermine the institution of slavery. By emphasizing the spiritual equality of all believers before God, by commanding masters to treat slaves with justice and equity, and by urging slaves to serve as unto Christ, Paul planted the seeds of abolition within the very fabric of the Christian community. The Christian worldview, which insists on the inherent dignity and value of every human being as created in God's image and redeemed by Christ, ultimately proved incompatible with the dehumanizing practice of chattel slavery. While the full societal implications took centuries to unfold, Paul’s teachings provided the theological and moral framework that would eventually lead to the demise of slavery wherever Christian influence took root. His writings compel us to recognize that true freedom and justice begin not with external decrees alone, but with the internal transformation of hearts by the power of the gospel of Jesus Christ.