TRV
“Paying Taxes to Caesar”· Mark 12:13–17
Translation
King James Version
And Jesus answering said unto them, Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's. And they marvelled at him.
Complete Jewish Bible
Yeshua said, "Give the Emperor what belongs to the Emperor. And give to God what belongs to God!" And they were amazed at him.
Berean Standard Bible
Then Jesus told them, “Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s, and to God what is God’s.” And they marveled at Him.
American Standard Version
And Jesus said unto them, Render unto Cæsar the things that are Cæsar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s. And they marvelled greatly at him.
World English Bible Messianic
Yeshua answered them, “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.” They marveled greatly at him.
Geneva Bible (1599)
Then Iesus answered, and saide vnto them, Giue to Cesar the things that are Cesars, and to God, those that are Gods: and they marueiled at him.
Young's Literal Translation
and Jesus answering said to them, `Give back the things of Caesar to Caesar, and the things of God to God;' and they did wonder at him.
See on the biblical-era map
In the KJVVerse 24,691 of 31,102 · 79.4%
LawLawHistoryHistPoetryPoetProphetsProphNew TestamentNT
Study This Verse
Public-domain commentary
Matthew Henry
From his Commentary on the Whole Bible. Henry comments on passages, not single verses — this entry covers Mark 12:13–17. His two-level outline is real structure in the source text, so it is rendered as structure.
Passage under commentMark 12:13–17
13¶ And they send unto him certain of the Pharisees and of the Herodians, to catch him in his words.
14And when they were come, they say unto him, Master, we know that thou art true, and carest for no man: for thou regardest not the person of men, but teachest the way of God in truth: Is it lawful to give tribute to Caesar, or not?
15Shall we give, or shall we not give? But he, knowing their hypocrisy, said unto them, Why tempt ye me? bring me a penny, that I may see it.
16And they brought it. And he saith unto them, Whose is this image and superscription? And they said unto him, Caesar's.
17And Jesus answering said unto them, Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God's. And they marvelled at him.
I. II. Main points1. 2. Sub-points
When the enemies of Christ, who thirsted for his blood, could not find occasion against him from what he said against them, they tried to ensnare him by putting questions to him. Here we have him tempted, or attempted rather, with a question about the lawfulness of paying tribute to Caesar. We had this narrative, Mat 22:15.
I.The persons they employed were the Pharisees and the Herodians, men that in this matter were contrary to one another, and yet concurred against Christ, Mar 12:13. The Pharisees were great sticklers for the liberty of the Jews, and, if he should say, It is lawful to give tribute to Caesar, they would incense the common people against him, and the Herodians would, underhand, assist them in it. The Herodians were great sticklers for the Roman power, and, if he should discountenance the paying of tribute to Caesar, they would incense the governor against hum, yea, and the Pharisees, against their own principles, would join with them in it. It is no new thing for those that are at variance in other things, to join in a confederacy against Christ.
II.The pretence they made was, that they desired him to resolve them a case of conscience, which was of great importance in the present juncture; and they take on them to have a high opinion of his ability to resolve it, Mar 12:14. They complimented him at a high rate, called him Master, owned him for a Teacher of the way of God, a Teacher of it in truth, one who taught what was good, and upon principles of truth, who would not be brought by smiles or frowns to depart a step from the rules of equity and goodness; "Thou carest for no man, nor regardest the person of men, thou art not afraid of offending either the jealous prince on one hand, or the jealous people on the other; thou art right, and always in the right, and dost in a right manner declare good and evil, truth and falsehood." If they spoke as they thought concerning Christ, when they said, We know that thou art right, their persecuting him, and putting him to death, as a deceiver, was sin against knowledge; they knew him, and yet crucified him. However, a man's testimony shall be taken most strongly against himself, and out of their own mouths are they judged; they knew that he taught the way of God in truth, and yet rejected the counsel of God against themselves. The professions and pretences of hypocrites will be produced in evidence against them, and they will be self-condemned. But if they did not know or believe it, they lied unto God with their mouth, and flattered him with their tongue.
III.The question they put was, Is it lawful to give tribute to Caesar, or not? They would be thought desirous to know their duty.
As a nation that did righteousness, they ask of God the ordinances of justice, when really they desired nothing but to know what he would say, in hopes that, which side soever he took of the question, they might take occasion from it to accuse him. Nothing is more likely to ensnare ministers, than bringing them to meddle with controversies about civil rights, and to settle land-marks between the prince and the subject, which it is fit should be done, while it is not at all fit that they should have the doing of it. They seemed to refer the determining of this matter to Christ; and he indeed was fit to determine it, for by him kings reign, and princes decree justice; they put the question fairly, Shall we give, or shall we not give? They seemed resolved to stand to his award; "If thou sayest that we must pay tribute, we will do it, thou we be made beggars by it. If thou sayest that we must not, we will not, though we be made traitors for it." Many seemed desirous to do it; as those proud men, Jer 42:20.
IV.Christ determined the question, and evaded the snare, by referring them to their national concessions already made, by which they were precluded from disputing this matter, Mar 12:15-17. He knew their hypocrisy, the malice that was in their hearts against him, while with their mouth they showed all this love. Hypocrisy, though ever so artfully managed, cannot be concealed from the Lord Jesus. He sees the potsherd that is covered with the silver dross. He knew they intended to ensnare him, and therefore contrived the matter so as to ensnare them, and to oblige them by their own words to do what they were unwilling to do, which was, to pay their taxes honestly and quietly, and yet at the same time to screen himself against their exceptions. He made them acknowledge that the current money of their nation was Roman money, had the emperor's image on one side, and his superscription on the reverse; and if so,
1.Caesar might command their money for the public benefit, because he had the custody and conduct of the state, wherein he ought to have his charges borne; Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's. The circulation of the money is from him as the fountain, and therefore it must return to him. As far as it is his, so far it must be rendered to him; and how far it is his, and may be commanded by him, is to be judged by the constitution of the government, according as it is, and hath settled the prerogative of the prince and the property of the subject.
2.Caesar might not command their consciences, nor did he pretend to it; he offered not to make any alteration in their religion. "Pay your tribute, therefore, without murmuring or disputing, but be sure to render to God the things that are God's." Perhaps he referred to the parable he had just now put forth, in which he had condemned them for not rendering the fruits to the Lord of the vineyard, Mar 12:2. Many that seem careful to give to men their due, are in no care to give God the glory due to his name; whereas our hearts and best affections are as much due to him as ever rent was to a landlord, or tribute to a prince. All that heard Christ, marvelled at the discretion of his answer, and how ingenuously he avoided the snare; but I doubt none were brought by it, as they ought to be, to render to God themselves and their devotions. Many will commend the wit of a sermon, that will not be commanded by the divine laws of a sermon.
Copy as
Historical interpretation
Nine Centuries of Reception
12 surviving comments on this verse. Each one is dated, so this reads as a timeline rather than a list.
Ante-NicenePost-NiceneEarly MedievalMedieval
20030040050060070080090010001100
Select a marker to jump to its quote. Markers stagger vertically where authors wrote within a few decades of each other.
For they questioned Him with honied words, and they surrounded Him as bees, who carry honey in their mouth, but a sting in their tail.
Render to Cæsar the money bearing his image, which is collected for him, and render yourselves willingly up to God, for the light of thy countenance, O Lord, and not of Cæsar's, is stamped upon us. (Ps 4:7. Vulg.)
And of civil government: "Render to Caesar the things which are Caesar's; and unto God the things which are God's."
We pray for the safety of the emperors to the eternal God, the true, the living God, whom emperors themselves would desire to be benevolent to them, the One who is “above all others who are called gods.” We, looking up to heaven with outstretched hands, because we are harmless, with naked heads, because we are not ashamed, without a prompter, because we pray from the heart, constantly pray for all emperors, that they may have a long life, a secure empire, a safe center of governance, adequate defense, a faithful senate, a well-instructed people, a quiet state—whatever Caesar would wish for himself in his public and private capacity.
That means render the image of Caesar, which is on the coin, to Caesar, and the image of God, which is imprinted on the person, to God. You give to Caesar only money. But to God, give yourself.
Idolatry is condemned, not on account of the persons which are set up for worship, but on account of those its observances, which pertain to demons. "The things which are Caesar's are to be rendered to Caesar." It is enough that He set in apposition thereto, "and to God the things which are God's.
For the sake of those who were in captivity, like the bondage of the Hebrews, the Son of God took upon himself the form of a slave, yet doing nothing worldly or servile. As one who came in the form of a slave, he paid tax and tribute for us, in the same way that a restitution would be paid for his blood and that of his disciples.… Therefore, let anyone who possesses the things of Caesar render freely them to Caesar, so that he may be able then to render freely to God the things of God.… Just as our Lord paid our debt, not having initiated it, nor expended it, nor acquired it, nor at any time made it his own possession.
Caesar seeks his image; render it. God seeks his image; render it. Do not withhold from Caesar his coin. Do not keep from God his coin. To this they could not think of anything to answer. For they had been sent to slander him. And they went back saying: No one could answer him. Why? Because he had shattered their teeth in their mouth.
We are God’s money. But we are like coins that have wandered away from the treasury. What was once stamped upon us has been worn down by our wandering. The One who restamps his image upon us is the One who first formed us. He himself seeks his own coin, as Caesar sought his coin. It is in this sense that he says, “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s,” to Caesar his coins, to God your very selves.
And they marveled at him. Those who should have believed in such great wisdom, marveled because their cunning in plotting had found no place. And, as Matthew writes, they left him and went away, carrying their unbelief along with the miracle.
They said to him: Caesar's. Then Jesus, answering, said to them: Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's. What he said: Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, the coin, the tribute, and the money; and unto God the things that are God's, we understand as tithes, first fruits, offerings, and sacrifices. Just as he himself pays the tribute for himself and for Peter, and rendered to God the things that are God's, doing the will of the Father. Another way: Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's. Just as Caesar demands from us the impression of his image, so too does God, that just as the coin is rendered to Caesar, so the soul illuminated and marked by the light of his countenance is rendered to God. Hence the Psalmist says: The light of your countenance, O Lord, has been signed upon us (Psalm IV). This light is also the whole of man, and true good, which is seen not with the eyes but with the mind. He said it is signed upon us, just as a coin is engraved with the image of the king. For man was made in the image and likeness of God, which he corrupted by sinning. Therefore, his true and eternal good is if he is marked again by being reborn.
(ubi sup.) The Chief Priests though they sought to take Him, feared the multitude, and therefore they endeavoured to effect what they could not do of themselves, by means of earthly powers, that they might themselves appear to be guiltless of His death; and therefore it is said, And they send, unto him certain of the Pharisees and of the Herodians, to catch him in his words.
(ubi sup.) But this bland and crafty question was intended to induce Him in His answer rather to fear God than Cæsar, and to say that tribute should not be paid, so that the Herodians immediately on hearing it might hold Him to be an author of sedition against the Romans; and therefore they add, And carest for no man: for thou regardest not the person of any.
(ubi sup.) A denarius was a piece of money, accounted equal to ten smaller coins, and bearing the image of Cæsar; wherefore there follows: And he saith unto them, Whose is this image and superscription? And they said unto him, Cæsar's. Let those who think that our Saviour asked the question through ignorance and not by an economy, learn from this that He might have known whose image it was; but He puts the question, in order to return them a fitting answer; wherefore there follows: And Jesus answering said unto them, Render unto Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's, and unto God the things that are God's.
(ubi sup.) That is, tithes, first-fruits, oblations, and victims. In the same way as He gave tribute both for Himself and Peter, He also gave to God the things that are God's, doing the will of His Father.
We have said elsewhere of the Herodians, that they were a certain new heresy, who said that Herod was the Christ, because the succession of the kingdom of Judah had failed. Others however say that the Herodians were the soldiers of Herod, whom the Pharisees brought as witnesses of the words of Christ, that they might take Him, and lead Him away. But observe how in their wickedness they wished to deceive Christ by flattery; for it goes on: Master, we know that thou art true.
So that thou wilt not honour Cæsar, that is, against the truth; therefore they add, But teachest the way of God in truth. Is it lawful to give tribute to Cæsar, or not? Shall we give, or shall we not give? For their whole plot was one which had a precipice on both sides, so that if He said that it was lawful to give tribute to Cæsar, they might provoke the people against Him, as though He wished to reduce the nation itself to slavery; but if He said, that it was not lawful, they might accuse Him, as though He was stirring up the people against Cæsar; but the Fountain of wisdom escaped their snares. Wherefore there follows: But he, knowing their hypocrisy, said unto them, Why tempt ye me? bring me a penny, that I may see it. And they brought it.
As if He had said, Give what bears an image to him whose image it bears, that is, the penny to Cæsar; for we can both pay Cæsar his tribute, and offer to God what is His own.
The inevitable wants of our bodies is as Cæsar unto each of us; the Lord therefore orders that there should be given to the body its own, that is, food and raiment, and to God the things that are God's. It goes on: And they marvelled at him. They who ought to have believed, wondered at such great wisdom, because they had found no place for their craftiness.
Source: Quotations drawn from early Church Fathers and historical Christian theologians (AD 100–1500). Some quotes address the surrounding passage context rather than this verse alone.
Copy as
Continue studying Mark 12:17 across the web’s major study libraries — every link below opens this exact verse, chapter, or book on the destination site.
Read & Compare
BibleGatewayThis verse in more than 200 translations and 70 languages.
Bible.comThe YouVersion reader — hundreds of translations, reading plans, and highlights.
ESV.orgCrossway's official English Standard Version reader.
NET BibleThe NET translation with 60,000+ translators' notes on every rendering decision.
STEP BibleTyndale House's free study tool — original text, vocabulary, and scholarly resources.
BibliaLogos Bible Software's free web reader.
USCCBThe New American Bible (Revised Edition) with the U.S. bishops' study notes.
Commentaries
BibleHub CommentariesDozens of classic commentaries on this verse, gathered on one page.
StudyLightMore than 100 commentary sets — the largest collection on the web.
BibleRefPlain-English commentary on what this verse means, verse by verse.
Enduring WordDavid Guzik's free commentary on this chapter, widely used by Bible teachers.
Bible Study ToolsVerse commentary alongside Greek and Hebrew study aids.
Original Language & Research
- BibleHub InterlinearThe verse word by word — original language, transliteration, and English.
- BibleHub LexiconEvery word's original-language definition and Strong's entry.
Blue Letter BibleDeep-study tools — Strong's numbers, concordance, and word studies.
CNTR CollationThe earliest Greek manuscripts of this verse, collated letter by letter.
Sermons, Hymns & Audio
TrulyRandomVerse is not affiliated with these sites and doesn’t control their content. They’re linked because they’re genuinely useful.
Summary
Mark 12:17 captures Jesus' profound and strategic response to a malicious trap set by His adversaries, the Pharisees and Herodians, regarding the legitimacy of paying taxes to Caesar. In this pivotal declaration, Jesus masterfully articulates a foundational principle concerning the dual responsibilities of individuals to both earthly governing authorities and, more supremely, to God, thereby disarming His interrogators and astonishing the crowd with His divine wisdom.
Context
Literary Context
This potent statement by Jesus is situated within a series of intense confrontations and challenges to His authority in Jerusalem during the final week leading up to His crucifixion. Immediately preceding this encounter, Jesus had delivered the Parable of the Wicked Vinedressers, which clearly condemned the Jewish religious leaders for their rejection of God's messengers, including Himself. This parable further inflamed their animosity, prompting them to seek a way to arrest Him. The question about paying tribute to Caesar was a carefully crafted snare, designed to force Jesus into a politically untenable position, either alienating the Jewish populace or inciting Roman authorities. Jesus' response, therefore, is not an isolated teaching but a brilliant counter-move within a larger narrative of escalating conflict and divine revelation.
Historical & Cultural Context
First-century Judea was under Roman occupation, and Roman taxation was a constant source of resentment and political tension for the Jewish people. The specific tax in question was likely the annual poll tax, a denarius per person, which was particularly offensive because it bore the image of the Roman emperor (Tiberius Caesar at the time) and an inscription proclaiming his divinity ("Tiberius Caesar, son of the divine Augustus"). For many devout Jews, carrying or using such a coin was a violation of the Mosaic Law against idolatry. The Pharisees, while generally opposed to Roman rule, pragmatically tolerated the tax, whereas the Herodians were a pro-Roman political faction. Their unlikely alliance in posing this question underscored their desperate attempt to corner Jesus. Jesus' request for the coin itself was significant, as it highlighted their complicity in the very system they questioned.
Key Themes
Jesus' response in this verse contributes significantly to several overarching themes within Mark's Gospel and broader biblical theology. It explicitly addresses the theme of dual allegiance and responsibility, establishing that legitimate spheres of authority exist for both civil government and God, each demanding appropriate honor and obedience. Crucially, it underscores God's ultimate sovereignty; while Caesar's image is on the coin, humanity bears the image of God, implying a far greater claim on our lives and worship, as seen in Genesis 1:27. Furthermore, this encounter powerfully demonstrates the wisdom and authority of Christ, as His answer brilliantly navigates a treacherous political and religious trap, silencing His adversaries and revealing a profound spiritual truth that transcends their narrow agenda. His ability to discern the heart of their question and respond with such clarity and depth is a hallmark of His divine nature, a theme woven throughout the Gospel of Mark.
Exposition and Analysis
Key Word Analysis
This word (G591) means "to give away, i.e. up, over, back, etc. (in various applications):--deliver (again), give (again), (re-)pay(-ment be made), perform, recompense, render, requite, restore, reward, sell, yield." It carries the strong connotation of paying back or giving what is due, fulfilling an obligation, or restoring something that rightfully belongs to another. It is not merely a suggestion to "give" but a command to "pay what is owed." This implies that the tribute to Caesar is not a gift or an optional offering, but a legitimate debt or duty.
This term (G2316) refers to "a deity, especially (with ὁ) the supreme Divinity." In this context, it stands in stark contrast to Caesar, representing the ultimate, supreme authority to whom all things belong. Jesus' juxtaposition of Caesar and God elevates the discussion beyond mere political obligation to the realm of ultimate allegiance and worship, asserting God's absolute claim over all creation and humanity.
This verb (G2296) means "to wonder; by implication, to admire." The reaction of Jesus' interrogators and the crowd—that "they marvelled at him"—is a crucial detail. It signifies that Jesus' answer was not only unexpected but profoundly insightful and unassailable. It disarmed His enemies, revealing the futility of their trap and highlighting the unparalleled wisdom of Christ, leaving them astonished and speechless.
Verse Breakdown
"And Jesus answering said unto them"
This phrase sets the stage, emphasizing Jesus' active and deliberate response. It highlights His full awareness of the trap and His intention to provide an answer that transcends the immediate political question, revealing deeper spiritual truths. His answer is not a reaction but a divinely inspired counter-statement.
"Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's"
This clause acknowledges the legitimate sphere of civil authority. By identifying the coin with Caesar's image, Jesus implicitly affirms that the coin, and by extension, the system it represents, falls under Caesar's domain. Therefore, obligations to the state, such as taxes, are to be fulfilled. This is a recognition of the temporal authority God permits human governments to exercise.
"and to God the things that are God's"
This is the pivotal and more profound part of Jesus' statement. It establishes a higher, ultimate allegiance. While Caesar has a claim on the coin (which bears his image), God has a claim on humanity, who are created in His image (Genesis 1:27). This implies that our lives, worship, obedience, and entire being belong to God. This clause subordinates earthly authority to divine authority, demanding a complete and holistic devotion to God.
"And they marvelled at him"
This concluding observation underscores the impact of Jesus' wisdom. His answer was so brilliant and comprehensive that it completely confounded His adversaries, who had expected to trap Him. Their marveling signifies their astonishment at His ability to navigate the dilemma flawlessly, providing an answer that was both politically astute and profoundly theologically sound, leaving them without a retort.
Literary Devices
Mark 12:17 is rich in literary devices that amplify its message. The most prominent is Antithesis, as Jesus directly contrasts "Caesar" with "God" and "the things that are Caesar's" with "the things that are God's." This stark opposition highlights the dual nature of human obligations and the ultimate supremacy of divine authority. There is also a subtle use of Symbolism: the coin, bearing Caesar's image, symbolizes earthly power, taxation, and the temporal realm. In contrast, the implied "things that are God's" refer to humanity itself, made in God's image, symbolizing our inherent belonging and ultimate accountability to the Creator. Jesus' response also functions as a masterful Rhetorical Strategy, as He turns a loaded political question into a profound theological declaration, disarming His interrogators and demonstrating His unparalleled wisdom. The final phrase, "And they marvelled at him," serves as a Narrative Device emphasizing the profound impact of Jesus' words and His unassailable authority.
Theological and Thematic Connections
Jesus' declaration in Mark 12:17 is a cornerstone for understanding the Christian's relationship with both civil authority and divine sovereignty. It establishes a principle of dual citizenship, where believers are called to be responsible and obedient citizens of their earthly nations while simultaneously recognizing their ultimate allegiance and identity as citizens of God's eternal kingdom. This means fulfilling civic duties, such as paying taxes and obeying laws, as a reflection of good stewardship and a testimony to Christ, provided these duties do not directly conflict with God's higher commands. The profound implication is that everything we possess and every aspect of our being, from our material possessions to our very lives, ultimately belongs to God, who has stamped His image upon us. Therefore, the "rendering" to God is not merely a religious act but a holistic devotion of our entire existence, acknowledging His rightful ownership and supreme authority over all.
Reflection and Application
Jesus' teaching in Mark 12:17 offers timeless guidance for believers navigating the complexities of living faithfully in a fallen world. It challenges us to critically examine our allegiances and priorities, ensuring that our commitment to God remains paramount, even as we fulfill our responsibilities as citizens. This means actively participating in society, respecting laws, and contributing to the common good, not out of fear or mere obligation, but as an expression of our worship and obedience to God, who has established governing authorities. However, it also serves as a crucial reminder that when earthly demands directly contradict divine principles, our ultimate loyalty must always be to God. This calls for discernment, courage, and a deep understanding of biblical truth, empowering us to live as salt and light in the world, influencing culture for Christ while never compromising our faith. It is a call to holistic stewardship, recognizing that our time, talents, resources, and very identity are gifts from God, to be rendered back to Him in service and worship.
Questions for Reflection
FAQ
What exactly did Jesus mean by "the things that are God's"?
While "the things that are Caesar's" clearly referred to the Roman tax and the system it represented, "the things that are God's" encompasses far more than just religious offerings or temple taxes. Jesus' profound point is rooted in the biblical understanding that humanity itself is created in God's image (Genesis 1:27). Just as the coin bore Caesar's image and therefore belonged to him, so humans bear God's image and therefore belong to Him. This implies that our entire being—our lives, hearts, minds, souls, strength, talents, time, and resources—are ultimately God's. It calls for holistic worship, obedience, and stewardship, recognizing God's absolute claim over every aspect of our existence.
Does this verse mean Christians should always obey the government, no matter what?
No, not absolutely. Jesus' statement establishes the legitimacy of civil authority and the Christian's responsibility to obey it in general. The Apostle Paul later reinforces this in Romans 13:1-7, teaching that governing authorities are instituted by God. However, the crucial caveat lies in the second part of Jesus' statement: "and to God the things that are God's." When human laws or demands directly conflict with God's commands or His moral law, our ultimate allegiance is to God. The apostles exemplified this principle when they declared, "We must obey God rather than human beings" (Acts 5:29). Therefore, while Christians are called to be exemplary citizens, their obedience to the state is always subordinate to their supreme obedience to God.
Christ-Centered Fulfillment
Mark 12:17 finds its ultimate fulfillment and deepest meaning in the person and work of Jesus Christ Himself. Jesus, as the perfect Son of God, perfectly rendered to God "the things that are God's" through His unwavering obedience, even unto death on the cross (Philippians 2:8). He exemplified the principle of submitting to earthly authorities (e.g., paying the temple tax in Matthew 17:24-27, submitting to arrest and trial) while never compromising His divine mission or ultimate allegiance to His Father. His kingdom, though not "of this world" in its origin or nature (John 18:36), profoundly impacts and transforms this world. As the very "image of the invisible God" (Colossians 1:15), Jesus is the one in whom all things are rightly rendered to God. Through His atoning sacrifice, He reclaims humanity, who bears God's image, from the dominion of sin and death, enabling us to truly "render to God the things that are God's" by living lives devoted to Him, empowered by the Holy Spirit. He is the ultimate example and the means by which we can fulfill this profound dual obligation.